From Crisis to Recovery: The Influence of Warfare and Administrative Reforms on Settlement Patterns from the Late Persian Period to Ptolemy II in the Land of Israel
Keywords:
settlement patterns, Late Persian period, Ptolemy II, warfare, IsraelAbstract
The current article re-evaluates the pottery assemblages of sites in the southern Levant in order to distinguish, for the first time, between those occupied in the late 4th century BCE, namely in the late Persian period or in the very early Hellenistic period, and those occupied in the early 3rd century BCE – roughly during the reign of Ptolemy II. The insights gained from this re-evaluation are used to outline changes in settlement patterns during the transition between the Persian and the Hellenistic periods and to address the nature of the transition between the periods – whether it was smooth and accompanied by a period of prosperity as was argued by previous archaeological studies, or whether it was a period of instability and decline as seen from literary evidence.
References
Abel 1935. F.-M. Abel, La Syrie et la Palestine au temps de Ptolémée Ier Soter, RB 44.4, 1935, 559–581
Aharoni 1975. Y. Aharoni, Excavations at Tel Beer-Sheba. Preliminary Report of the Fifth and Sixth Seasons, 1973–1974, TelAvivJA 2.4, 1975, 146–168
Alexandre 2006. Y. Alexandre, Naḥal Tut (Site VIII): A Fortified Storage Depot from the Late Fourth Century BCE, Atiqot 52, 2006, 131–189
Alexandre 2014. Y. Alexandre, An Agricultural Depot Fort at Nahal Tut from the Time of Alexander the Great’s Conquest of the Levant, in: M. Aviam (ed.), From Watch Tower to Fortified City. Forts and Fortresses in Northern Israel from the Canaanite to the IDF, Land of Galilee 3 (Tzemach 2014) 55–64 (Hebrew)
Austin 1986. M. M. Austin, Hellenistic Kings, War, and the Economy, The Classical Quarterly 36.2, 1986, 450–466
Austin 2001. M. M. Austin, War and Culture in the Seleucid Empire, in: T. Bekker-Nielsen – L. Hannestad (eds.), War as a Cultural and Social Force. Essays on Warfare in Antiquity (Copenhagen 2001) 90–109
Bagnall 1976. R. S. Bagnall, The Administration of the Ptolemaic Possessions Outside Egypt, Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition 4 (Leiden 1976)
Balensi et. al. 1993. J. Balensi – M. D. Herrera – M. Artzy, Abu Hawam, Tell, NEAEHL 1, 7–14
Barag 1966. D. Barag, The Effects of the Tennes Rebellion on Palestine, BASOR 183, 1966, 6–12
Barag 2014. D. Barag, The Coins from Gezer, in: G. H. Gilmour – J. D. Seger – W. G. Dever – S. Gitin, Gezer 4. The Objects from Phases I and II (1964–1974) (Winona Lake, IN 2014) 242–250
Bar-Kochva 1976. B. Bar-Kochva, The Seleucid Army: Organization and Tactics in the Great Campaigns, Cambridge Classical Studies (Cambridge 1976)
Ben-Shlomo 2005. D. Ben-Shlomo, Material Culture, in: M. Dothan – D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod 6. The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), IAA Reports 24 (Jerusalem 2005) 63–246
Berlin 1997a. A. Berlin, The Plain Wares, in: S. Herbert (ed.), Tel Anafa 2, 1. The Hellenistic and Roman Pottery, JRASS 10, 2, 1 (Ann Arbor, MI 1997) 1–244
Berlin 1997b. A. Berlin, From Monarchy to Market. The Phoenicians in Hellenistic Palestine, BASOR 306, 1997, 75–88
Berlin 1997c. A. M. Berlin, Between Large Forces: Palestine in the Hellenistic Period, Biblical Archaeologist 60.1, 1997, 2–51
Berlin 1999. A. M. Berlin, The Archaeology of Ritual. The Sanctuary of Pan at Banias/Caesarea Philipi, BASOR 315, 1999, 27–45
Berlin 2012. A. Berlin, The Pottery of Strata 8–7 (The Hellenistic Period), in: De Groot – Bernick-Greenberg 2012, 5–30
Berlin 2019. A. Berlin, Land/Homeland, Story/History. The Social Landscapes of the Southern Levant from Alexander to Augustus, in: A. Yasur-Landau – E. H. Cline – Y. M. Rowan (eds.), The Social Archaeology of the Levant. From Prehistory to the Present (Cambridge 2019) 410–437
Berlin 2021. A. M. Berlin, The Upper Galilee and the Northern Coast, in: A. M. Berlin – P. J. Kosmin (eds.), The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 28 (Atlanta, GA 2021) 145–176
Berlin et al. 2014. A. Berlin – S. Herbert – P. Stone, Dining in State. The Table Wares from the Persian-Hellenistic Administrative Building at Kedesh, in: P. Guldager Bilde – L. M. Lawall (eds.), Pottery, Peoples, and Places. Study and Interpretation of Late Hellenistic Pottery, BSS 16 (Aarhus 2014) 307–321
Berlin – Frankel 2012. A. M. Berlin – R. Frankel, The Sanctuary at Mizpe Yammim: Phoenician Cult and Territory in the Upper Galilee during the Persian Period, BASOR 366, 2012, 25–78
Berlin – Herbert 2012. A. M. Berlin – S. Herbert, Excavating Tel Kedesh, Archaeology 65.3, 2012, 24–29
Berlin – Herbert 2013. A. M. Berlin – R. Herbert, Tel Kedesh, in: D. M. Master (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Bible and Archaeology (Oxford 2013) 373–381
Berlin – Herbert 2021. A. M. Berlin – S. Herbert, The Achaemenid–Ptolemaic Transition. The View from Southern Phoenicia, in: S. Honigman – C. Nihan – O. Lipschits (eds.), Times of Transition. Judea in the Early Hellenistic Period (University Park, PA 2021) 143–160
Berlin – Stone 2016. A. M. Berlin – P. J. Stone, The Hellenistic and Early Roman Pottery, in: M. Hartal – D. Syon – E. Stern – A. Tatcher, ‘Akko 2. The 1991–1998 Excavations. The Early Periods, IAA Reports 60 (Jerusalem 2016) 133–202
Bernard 1990. P. Bernard, Nouvelle contribution de l’épigraphie cunéiforme à l’histoire hellénistique, BCH 114, 1990, 513–541
Betylon 1991. J. W. Betylon, Archaeological Evidence of Military Operations in Southern Judah during the Early Hellenistic Period, BA 54.1, 1991, 36–43
Bevan 1968. E. R. Bevan, The House of Ptolemy. A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Republished Edition (Chicago 1968)
Billows 1990. R. A. Billows, Antigonus the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State (Berkeley, CA 1990)
Bosworth 1993. A. B. Bosworth, Conquest and Empire. The Reign of Alexander the Great (Cambridge 1993)
Briend 1980. J. Briend, Vestiges hellénistiques, in: J. Briend – J. B. Humbert, Tell Keisan (1971–1976). Une cité phénicienne en Galilée, OBO.SA 1 (Fribourg 1980) 101–116
Burke et al. 2014. A. A. Burke – M. Peilstöcker – G. Pierce, Hellenistic Architecture in Jaffa: The 2009 Excavations of The Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project in The Visitor’s Centre, PEQ 146.1, 2014, 40–55
Campbell 2002. E. F. Campbell, Shechem Archaeological Excavations 3. The Stratigraphy and Architecture of Shechem / Tell Balâṭah 1. Text, ASOR Reports 6 (Boston, MA 2002)
Carter 1999. C. E. Carter, The Emergence of Yehud in the Persian Period. A Social and Demographic Study, Journal of the Study of the Old Testament Suppl. 294 (Sheffield 1999)
Champion 2014. J. Champion, Antigonus the One-Eyed. Greatest of the Successors (Barnsley 2014)
Chandezon 1999. C. Chandezon, L’économie rurale et la guerre, in: F. Prost (ed.), Armées et sociétés de la Grèce classique. Aspects sociaux et politiques de la guerre aux Ve et IVe s. av. J.-C. (Paris 1999) 195–208
Chaniotis 2005. A. Chaniotis, War in the Hellenistic World. A Social and Cultural History, Ancient World at War (Malden, MA 2005)
Cohen 2006. G. M. Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa (Berkeley, CA 2006)
Cross 1974. F. M. Cross, The Papyri and their Historical Implications, in: Lapp – Lapp 1974, 17–29
Crowfoot et al. 1942. J. W. Crowfoot – K. M. Kenyon – E. L. Sukenik, Samaria Sebaste 1. The Buildings at Samaria (London 1942)
Crowfoot et al. 1957. J. W. Crowfoot – G. M. Crowfoot – K. M. Kenyon, Samaria-Sebaste 3. The Objects from Samaria (London 1957)
Dadon 1997. M. Dadon, Har Hadar, Atiqot 32, 1997, 63*–79* (Hebrew, English summary 39*–40*)
De Groot 2012. A. de Groot, Discussion and Conclusions, in: De Groot
De Groot – Bernick-Greenberg 2012. A. de Groot – H. Bernick-Greenberg, Excavations at the City of David 1978–1985 Directed by Yigal Shiloh 7 B. Area E: The Finds, Qedem 54 (Jerusalem 2012)
Derfler 1993. S. Derfler, The Hellenistic Temple at Tel Beersheva (Lewiston, NY 1993)
Dever et al. 1970. W. G. Dever – H. D. Lance – G. E. Wright, Gezer 1. Preliminary Report of the 1964–1966 Seasons, ANGSBA 1 (Jerusalem 1970)
Dever et al. 1974. W. G. Dever – L. H. Darrel – R. G. Bullard, Gezer 2. Report of the 1967–1970 Seasons in Fields I and II, ANGSBA II (Jerusalem 1974)
Dothan 1971. M. Dothan, Ashdod 2–3. The Second and Third Seasons of Excavations, 1963, 1965, Atiqot 9–10, 1971
Dothan 1976. M. Dothan, Akko: Interim Excavation Report. First Season, 1973/4, BASOR 224, 1976, 1–48
Dothan 1993. M. Dothan, Ashdod, NEAEHL 1 (Jerusalem 1993) 93–102
Dothan – Porath 1982. M. Dothan – S. Porath, Ashdod 4. Excavations of Area M, Atiqot 15, 1982
Eger 2006. A. A. Eger, The Stratigraphy and Architecture, in: R. R. Stieglitz (ed.), Tel Tanninim. Excavations at Krokodeilon Polis 1996–1999, ASOR Reports 10 (Boston, MA 2006) 21–59
Elgavish 1968. Y. Elgavish, Archaeological Excavations at Shikmona 1. The Levels of the Persian Period, Seasons 1963–1965 (Haifa 1968) (Hebrew)
Eph‘al 2013. I. Eph‘al, The City Besieged. Siege and its Manifestations in the Ancient Near East (Jerusalem 2013)
Errington 1970. R. M. Errington, From Babylon to Triparadeisos: 323 320 B.C, JHS 90, 1970, 49–77
Errington 1977. R. M. Errington, Diodorus Siculus and the Chronology of the Early Diadochoi, 320–311 B.C., Hermes 105.4, 1977, 478–504
Eshel 2007. E. Eshel, The Onomasticon of Maresha in the Persian and Hellenistic Periods, in: O. Lipschits (ed.), Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century BCE (Winona Lake, IN 2007) 145–156
Fantalkin – Tal 2004. A. Fantalkin – O. Tal, The Persian and Hellenistic Pottery of Level I, in: D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish, 1973–1994, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 22 (Tel Aviv 2004) 2174–2194
Fantalkin – Tal 2006. A. Fantalkin – O. Tal, Re-dating Lachish Level I: Identifying Achaemenid Imperial Policy at the Southern Frontier of the Fifth Satrapy, in: O. Lipschits – M. Oeming (eds.), Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period (Winona Lake, IN 2006) 167–197
Farhi 2014. Y. Farhi, A Preliminary Report on the Coins and Selected Small Finds, in Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor – M. G. Hasel – M. G. Klingbein, Khirbet Qeiyafa 2. Excavation Report 2009–2013: Stratigraphy and Architecture (Areas B, C, D, E) (Jerusalem 2014) 375–390
Faust 2007. A. Faust, Settlement Dynamics and Demographic Fluctuations in Judah from the Late Iron Age to the Hellenistic Period and the Archaeology of Persian Period Yehud, in: Y. Levin (ed.), A Time of Change. Judah and its Neighbors During the Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods (London 2007) 23–51
Faust et al. 2015. A. Faust – H. Katz – P. Eyall, Late Persian–Early Hellenistic Remains at Tel ‘Eton, Tel Aviv 42, 2015, 103–106
Faust –Safrai 2005. A. Faust – Z. Safrai, Salvage Excavations as a Source for Reconstructing Settlement History in Ancient Israel, PEQ 137.2, 2005, 139–158
Finkelstein 2008. I. Finkelstein, Jerusalem in the Persian (and Early Hellenistic) Period and the Wall of Nehemiah, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.4, 2008, 501–520
Finkelstein 2009. I. Finkelstein, Persian Period Jerusalem and Yehud: A Rejoinder, Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9, article 24
Finkelstein 2010. I. Finkelstein, The Territorial Extent and Demography of Yehud/Judea in the Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods, RB 117.1, 2010, 39–64
Finkielsztejn 1989. G. Finkielsztejn, Tell Abu Hawam: Réexamen de périodes hellénistique et perse (Fouilles 1929 à 1933), RB 96.2, 1989, 224–234
Finley 1999. M. I. Finley, The Ancient Economy. Updated Edition (Berkeley, CA 1999)
Fischer 2005. M. Fischer, The Archaeology and History of Yavneh Yam, in: M. Fischer, Yavneh, Yavneh-Yam and their Neighborhood. Studies in the Archaeology and History of the Judean Coastal Plain (Tel Aviv 2005) 173–208 (Hebrew)
Fischer-Bovet 2021. C. Fischer-Bovet, The Machinations of the Ptolemaic State in Its Relationship with Judea (160–104 BCE), in: A. M. Berlin – P. J. Kosmin (eds.), The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 28 (Atlanta, GA 2021) 293–310
Fischer et al. 2008. M. Fischer – I. Roll – O Tal, Persian and Hellenistic Remains at Tel Ya’oz, TelAvivJA 35.1, 2008, 123–163
Foxhall 1993. L. Foxhall, Farming and Fighting in Ancient Greece, in: J. Rich – G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Greek World, Leicester-Nottingham Studies in Ancient Society 4 (London 1993) 134–145
Freikman – Garfinkel 2014. M. Freikman – Y. Garfinkel, Area C, in: Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor – M. G. Hasel – M. G. Klingbeil, Khirbet Qeiyafa 2. Excavation Report 2009–2013: Stratigraphy and Architecture (Areas B, C, D, E) (Jerusalem 2014) 93–226
Fuks 1983. G. Fuks, Scythopolis. A Greek City in Eretz Israel (Jerusalem 1983) (Hebrew)
Gadot 2015. Y. Gadot, In the Valley of the King: Jerusalem‘s Rural Hinterland in the 8th-4th Centuries BCE, TelAvivJA 42.1, 2015, 3–26
Garfinkel 2021. Y. Garfinkel, Khirbet Qeiyafa in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods, in: S. Honigman – C. Nihan – O. Lipschits (eds.), Times of Transition. Judea in the Early Hellenistic Period (University Park, PA 2021) 81–101
Garfinkel – Ganor 2009. Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor, Khirbet Qeiyafa 1. Excavation Report 2007–2008 (Jerusalem 2009)
Garfinkel – Ganor 2010. Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor, Khirbet Qeiyafa in Survey and in Excavations: A Response to Y. Dagan, TelAvivJA 37.2, 2010, 67–78
Garlan 1975. Y. Garlan, War in the Ancient World. A Social History, Translated by J. Lloyd (London 1975)
Gilmour 2014. G. Gilmour, Gezer 4. The Objects from Phases I and II (1964-1974), ANGSBA 10 (Winona Lake, IN 2014)
Gitin 1990. S. Gitin, Gezer 3. A Ceramic Typology of the Late Iron II, Persian and Hellenistic Periods at Tell Gezer (Jerusalem 1990)
Gitler 1997. H. Gitler, The Coins from Har-Adar, Atiqot 32, 1997, 80*–81* (Hebrew)
Gitler 2008. H. Gitler, Coins of the Fifth and Fourth Centuries BCE, in: L. E. Stager – J. D. Schloen – D. M. Master, Ashkelon 1. Introduction and Overview (1985–2006) (Winona Lake, IN 2008) 373–384
Gorzalczany 2006. A. Gorzalczany, The 1996 Excavations along the Northern Hill at Tell Mikhal (Tel Michal), Atiqot 52, 2006, 1–19
Grabbe 2007. L. L. Grabbe, Archaeology and Archaiologias: Relating Excavations to History in Fourth-Century B.C.E. Palestine, in: O. Lipschits – G. N. Knoppers – R. Albertz (eds.), Judah and Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (Winona Lake, IN 2007) 125–135
Grabbe 2008. L. L. Grabbe, A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period, Library of Second Temple Studies 68 (London 2008)
Grabbe 2011. L. L. Grabbe, Hyparchs, Oikonomoi and Mafiosi: The Governance of Judah in the Ptolemaic Period, in: L. L. Grabbe – O. Lipschits (eds.), Judah Between East and West. The Transition from Persian to Greek Rule (ca. 400–200 BCE), Library of Second Temple Studies 75 (New York 2011) 70–90
Grainger 1991. J. D. Grainger, Hellenistic Phoenicia (Oxford 1991)
Grainger 2010. J. D. Grainger, The Syrian Wars, Mnemosyne Suppl. 320 (Leiden 2010)
Haddad et al. 2015. E. Haddad – A. Tendler – H. Torgë – I. Gilad, An Administrative Building from the Persian Period East of Rosh ha-‘Ayin, IEJ 65.1, 2015, 50–68
Hanson 1998. V. D. Hanson, Warfare and Agriculture in Classical Greece (Berkeley, CA 1998)
Hartal et al. 2016. M. Hartal – D. Syon – E. Stern – A. Tatcher, ‘Akko 2. The 1991–1998 Excavations. The Early Periods, IAA Reports 60 (Jerusalem 2016) 133–202
Hasel 2014. M. G. Hasel, Area D, in: Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor – M. G. Hasel – M. G. Klingbeil, Khirbet Qeiyafa 2. Excavation Report 2009–2013: Stratigraphy and Architecture (Areas B, C, D, E) (Jerusalem 2014) 227–308
Hengel 1981. M. Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism. Studies in their Encounter in Palestine during the Early Hellenistic Period (Philadelphia, PA 1981)
Herbert 1994. S. Herbert, Tel Anafa 1, 1. Final Report on Ten Years of Excavations at a Hellenistic and Roman Settlement in Northern Israel, JRASS 10, 1, 1 (Ann Arbor, MI 1994)
Herbert – Berlin 2003. S. C. Herbert – A. M. Berlin, A New Administrative Center for Persian and Hellenistic Galilee: Preliminary Report of the University of Michigan / University of Minnesota Excavations at Kedesh, BASOR 329, 2003, 13–59
Herbert et al. 1997. S. Herbert – A. Berlin – K. W. Slane, Tel Anafa 2, 1. The Hellenistic and Roman Pottery, JRASS 10, 2 (Ann Arbor, MI 1997)
Herzog 1989a. Z. Herzog, Persian Period Stratigraphy and Architecture (Strata XI–VI), in: Z. Herzog – G. Rapp – O. Negbi (eds.), Excavations at Tel Michal, Israel, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology 8 (Tel Aviv 1989) 88–114
Herzog 1989b. Z. Herzog, Hellenistic Stratigraphy and Architecture (V–III), in: Z. Herzog – G. Rapp – O. Negbi (eds.), Excavations at Tel Michal, Israel, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology 8 (Tel Aviv 1989) 177–187
Hizmi – Shabtai 1994. H. Hizmi – Z. Shabtai, A Public Building from the Persian Period at Jabel Nimra, in: Z. H. Erlich – Y. Eshel (eds.), Judea and Samaria Research Studies, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Meeting–1993 (Kedumim-Ariel 1994) 65 – 86 (Hebrew)
Hölbl 2001. G. Hölbl, A History of Ptolemaic Egypt. Translated by T. Saavedram (London 2001)
Kang 2014. H. Kang, Area B, in: Y. Garfinkel – S. Ganor – M. G. Hasel – M. G. Klingbeil, Khirbet Qeiyafa 2. Excavation Report 2009–2013: Stratigraphy and Architecture (Areas B, C, D, E) (Jerusalem 2014) 61–91
Kasher 1990. A. Kasher, Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel. Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Hellenistic Cities during the Second Temple Period (332 BCE 70 CE) (Tübingen 1990)
Kee 1971. H. C. Kee, Area A — The Hellenistic Strata: The Pottery, in: M. Dothan, Ashdod 2–3. The Second and Third Seasons of Excavations, 1963, 1965, Atiqot 9–10, 1971, 44–64
Kloner 1993. A. Kloner, Maresha, NEAEHL 3, 948–957
Kloner 2008. A. Kloner, Maresha in the Reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, in: P. McKechnie – P. Guillaume (eds.), Ptolemy II Philadelphus and his World, Mnemosyne Suppl. 300 (Leiden 2008) 171–181
Kloner 2010. A. Kloner, The Site and the Epigraphic Finds, in: A. Kloner – E. Eshel – H. B. Korzakova – G. Finkelsztejn (eds.), Maresha Excavations Final Report 3. Epigraphic Finds from the 1998–2000 Seasons, IAA Reports 45 (Jerusalem 2010) 1–34
Kloner – Stern 2007. A. Kloner – I. Stern, Idumea in the Late Persian Period (Fourth Century B.C.E.), in: O. Lipschits – G. N. Knoppers – R. Albertz (eds.), Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (Winona Lake, IN 2007) 139–144
Kloner – Zissu 2013. A. Kloner – B. Zissu, The Subterranean Complexes of Maresha. An Urban Center from the Hellenistic Period in the Judean Foothills, Israel, Opera Ipogea 2, 2013, 45–62
Kogan-Zehavi 2009. E. Kogan-Zehavi, Khirbat el-Keikh, ExcIsr 121, 2009, http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail. aspx?id=1093&mag_id=115
Kogan-Zehavi 2014a. E. Kogan-Zehavi, The Rural Settlement in the Judaean Foothills in the Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods, in Light of the Excavations in Ramat Bet Shemesh, in: G. Stiebel – O. Peleg-Barkat – D. Ben-Ami – Y. Gadot. (eds.), New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region 8 (Jerusalem 2014) 120–133 (Hebrew)
Kogan-Zehavi 2014b. E. Kogan-Zehavi, Khirbat el-Keikh, ExcIsr 126, 2014, http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail. aspx?id=13681&mag_id=121
Kreimerman 2016. I. Kreimerman, Siege Warfare, Conflict and Destruction: How are They Related?, in: S. Ganor – I. Kreimerman – K. Streit – M. Mumcuoglu (eds.), From Sha‘ar Hagolan to Shaaraim Essays in Honor of Prof. Yosef Garfinkel (Jerusalem 2016) 229–245
Kreimerman 2022. I. Kreimerman, From Urban Centers into Mounds of Ruins. The Destruction of Cities during the Iron Age, in K. H. Keimer – G. A. Pierce (eds.), The Ancient Israelite World (London 2022) 175–188
Kreimerman – Sandhaus 2021. I. Kreimerman – D. Sandhaus, Political Trends as Reflected in the Material Culture. A New Look at the Persian and Hellenistic Transition, in: S. Honigman – C. Nihan – O. Lipschits (eds.), Times of Transition. Judea in the Early Hellenistic Period (University Park, PA 2021) 119–134
Lapp – Lapp 1974. P. W. Lapp – N. L. Lapp (eds.), Discoveries in the Wâdī ed-Dâliyeh, AASOR 41 (Cambridge, MA 1974)
Lemaire 2007. A. Lemaire, Administration in Fourth-Century B.C.E. Judah in Light of Epigraphy and Numismatics, in: O. Lipschits – G. N. Knoppers – R. Albertz (eds.), Judah and Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (Winona Lake, IN 2007) 53–74
Lichtenberger 2003. A. Lichtenberger, Kulte und Kultur der Dekapolis. Untersuchungen zu numismatischen, archäologischen und epigraphischen Zeugnissen, Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 29 (Wiesbaden 2003)
Lipschits 2009. O. Lipschits, Persian Period Finds from Jerusalem: Facts and Interpretations, Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9: Article 20
Lipschits 2011. O. Lipschits, Jerusalem between Two Periods of Greatness, in: L. L. Grabbe – O. Lipschits (eds.), Judah Between East and West. The Transition from Persian to Greek Rule (ca. 400–200 BCE), Library of Second Temple Studies 75 (New York 2011) 163–175
Lipschits et al. 2011. O. Lipschits – Y. Gadot – B. Arubas – M. Oeming, Palace and Village, Paradise and Oblivion. Unravelling the Riddles of Ramat Raḥel, NEA 74.1, 2011, 1–42
Lipschits et al. 2012. O. Lipschits – Y. Gadot – M. Oeming, Tel Azekah 113 Years After: Preliminary Evaluation of the Renewed Excavations at the Site, NEA 75.4, 2012, 196–206
Lipschits et al. 2014. O. Lipschits – Y. Gadot – B. Arubas – M. Oeming, What the Stones are Whispering? 3000 Years of Forgotten History at Ramat Raḥel (Jerusalem 2014) (Hebrew)
Lipschits – Tal 2007. O. Lipschits – O. Tal, The Settlement Archaeology of the Province of Judah: A Case Study, in: O. Lipschits – G. N. Knoppers – R. Albertz (eds.), Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (Winona Lake, IN 2007) 33–52
Lorber 2012. C. C. Lorber, Dating the Portrait Coinage of Ptolemy I, AmJNum 24, 2012, 33–44
Magen 2007. Y. Magen, The Dating of the First Phase of the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim in Light of Archaeological Evidence, in: O. Lipschits – G. N. Knoppers – R. Albertz (eds.), Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. (Winona Lake, IN) 157–211
Magen 2008. Y. Magen, Mount Gerizim Excavations 2. A Temple City, Judea and Samaria Publications 8 (Jerusalem 2008)
Manning 2003. J. G. Manning, Land and Power in Ptolemaic Egypt. The Structure of Land Tenure 332–30 BCE (Cambridge 2003)
Matskevich – Stern 2007. S. Matskevich – E. Stern, Stratigraphy of Stratum IV, in: E. Stern (ed.), En-Gedi Excavations 1. Final Report 1961–1965 (Jerusalem 2007) 193–197
Mazar – Ben-Shlomo 2005. A. Mazar – D. Ben-Shlomo, Stratigraphy and Building Remains, in: M. Dothan – D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod 6. The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), IAA Reports 24 (Jerusalem 2005) 11–61
Mazar – Wachtel 2015. A. Mazar – I. Wachtel, Hurvat ‘Eres: A Fourth-Century BCE Fortress West of Jerusalem, IEJ 65.2, 2015, 214–244
Mazor – Atrash 2017. G. Mazor – W. Atrash, Nysa-Scythopolis: The Hellenistic Polis, JHP 2, 2017, 82–101
Mazor et al. 2018. G. Mazor – W. Atrash – G. Finkielsztejn, Beth She’an 4. Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis. The Amphora Stamps and Sealings from Tel Iẓṭabba, IAA Reports 62 (Jerusalem 2018)
McKechnie 2018. P. McKechnie, The Greek Wars: The Fight for Egypt, in: P. McKechnie – J. A. Cromwell (eds.), Ptolemy I and the Transformation of Egypt, 404–282 BCE, Mnemosyne Suppl. 415 (Leiden 2018) 27–45
Meyers – Chancey 2012. E. M. Meyers – M. A. Chancey, Alexander to Constantine. Archaeology of the Land of the Bible 3, The Anchor Yale Bible Reference Library (New Haven, CT London 2012)
Naveh 1973. J. Naveh, The Aramaic Ostraca, in: Y. Aharoni, Beer sheba I. Excavations at Tel Beersheba, 1969–1971 Seasons, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology 2 (Tel Aviv 1973) 79–82
Naveh 1979. J. Naveh, The Aramaic Ostraca from Tel Beer-Sheba (Seasons 1971–1976), TelAvivJA 6.3–4, 1979, 182–198
Nitschke et al. 2011. J. L. Nitschke – S. R. Martin – Y. Shalev, Between Carmel and the Sea. Tel Dor: The Late Periods, NEA 74.3, 2011, 132–154
Nodet 1980. E. Nodet, Le Niveau 3 (Période Perse), in: J. Briend – J.-B. Humbert, Tell Keisan (1971–1976). Une cité phénicienne en Galilée, OBO.SA 1 (Fribourg 1980) 117–129
Paz et al. 2010. Y. Paz – M. Okita – A. Tsukimoto – S. Hasegawa – S. K. Lim – D. T. Sugimoto – T. Onozuka – Y. Tatsumi – M. Yamafuji, Excavations at Tel Rekhesh, IEJ 60.1, 2010, 22–40
Peilstöcker 2000. M. Peilstöcker, Rishon Le-Ẓiyyon Sand Dunes, ExcIsr 111, 2000, 102–102
Peleg-Barkat – Tepper 2014. O. Peleg-Barkat – Y. Tepper, Between Phoenicia and Judaea: Preliminary Results of the 2007–2010 Excavation Seasons at Horvat ʿEleq, Ramat HaNadiv, Israel, Strata 32, 2014, 49–80
Ristau 2016. K. A. Ristau, Reconstructing Jerusalem. Persian Period Prophetic Perspectives (Winona Lake, IN 2016)
Rochman-Halperin 1999. A. Rochman-Halperin, Excavations at Giv’at Yasaf (Tell er-Ras) – 1984–1985, Atiqot 37, 1999, 82–123 (Hebrew, English summary 172*–173*)
Roisman 1984. J. Roisman, Ptolemy and His Rivals in His History of Alexander, The Classical Quarterly 34.2, 1984, 373–385
Sandhaus 2018. D. Sandhaus, Stop, Border Ahead. The Settlement Pattern on Both Sides of the ‘Ella Valley from the Persian to the Hasmonean Period, in: D. Varga – O. Marder – R. Rasiuk – D. Veinshtock (eds.), The Persian and Hellenistic Periods in Eretz Israel. A View from the South (Beer-Sheva 2018) 23–36 (Hebrew)
Sandhaus 2020. D. Sandhaus, Continuity, Innovation and Transformation in Cooking Habits. The Central and Southern Shephelah between the Late Fourth and the First Centuries B.C.E., in: P. Altmann – A. Angelini – A. Spiciarich (eds.), Food Taboos and Biblical Prohibitions. Reassessing Archaeological and Literary Perspectives (Tübingen 2020) 107–120
Sandhaus 2021. D. Sandhaus, Settlements and Borders in the Shephelah from the Fourth to the First Centuries BCE, in: A. M. Berlin – P. J. Kosmin (eds.), The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 28 (Atlanta, GA 2021) 73–90
Sandhaus 2022. D. Sandhaus, The Nexus of Cultures: The Shephelah during the Persian and Hellenistic Periods, PhD Dissertation Tel Aviv University (Tel Aviv 2022)
Sandhaus forthcoming. D. Sandhaus, The Persian Period (Stratum II), in: A. Ben Tor – S. Zuckerman – M. Cimadevilla – S. Bechar – D. Sandhaus, Hazor 8. The 1990–2015 Excavations in Area M (Jerusalem)
Sandhaus – Kreimerman 2015. D. Sandhaus – I. Kreimerman, The Late 4th/3rd Century B.C.E. Transition in the Judean Hinterland in Light of the Pottery of Khirbet Qeiyafa, TelAvivJA 42, 2015, 251–271
Sandhaus – Kreimerman 2017. D. Sandhaus – I. Kreimerman, The Hellenistic Conquest of Israel and its Influence on the Settlement of the Hill Country and the Shephelah, in: Y. Gadot – Y. Zelinger – K. Cytryn-Silverman – J. Uziel (eds.), New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and its Region 11 (Jerusalem 2017) 202–214
Segal et al. 2006. O. Segal – R. Kletter – I. Ziffer, A Persian-Period Building from Tel Ya’oz (Tell Ghaẓa), Atiqot 52, 2006, 1*–24* (Hebrew, English Summary 203)
Sellers et al. 1968. O. R. Sellers – R. W. Funk – J. L. McKenzie – P. and N. Lapp, The 1957 Excavation at Beth Zur, AASOR 38 (Cambridge, MA 1968)
Seyrig 1965. H. Seyrig, Antiquités syriennes 87. Alexandre le Grand, fondateur de Gérasa, Syria 42.1/2, 1965, 25–28
Shalev et al. 2021. Y. Shalev – E. Bocher – H. Roth – D. Sandhaus – N. Shalom – Y. Gadot, Jerusalem in the Early Hellenistic Period: New Evidence for its Nature and Location, in: A. M. Berlin – P. J. Kosmin (eds.), The Middle Maccabees. Archaeology, History, and the Rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom, Archaeology and Biblical Studies 28 (Atlanta, GA 2021) 17–36
Shatil 2016. N. Shatil, The Pottery of the Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods from the Renewed Excavations at Tel Azekah: Typology, Chronology and Identity, M.A. Thesis, Tel Aviv University (Tel Aviv 2016)
Shiloh 1984. Y. Shiloh, Excavations at the City of David 1978–1982, 1. Interim Report of the First Five Seasons, Qedem 19 (Jerusalem 1984)
Shipley 2000. G. Shipley, The Greek World after Alexander, 323–30 BC (London 2000)
Smithline – Getzov 2009. H. Smithline – N. Getzov, Ḥorbat ‘Uẓa in the Persian and Hellenistic Periods, in: N. Getzov – R. Lieberman Wander – H. Smithline – D. Syon, Ḥorbat ‘Uẓa, the 1991 Excavations 1. The Early Periods, IAA Reports 41 (Jerusalem 2009) 149–151
Stager et al. 2008. L. E. Stager – L. D. Schloen – D. M. Master – M. D. Press – A. Aja, Stratigraphic Overview, in: L. E. Stager – J. D. Schloen – D. M. Master (eds.), Ashkelon 1. Introduction and Overview (Winona Lake, IN 2008) 215–323
Stepansky et al. 1993, Y. Stepansky – D. Segal – I. Carmi, The 1993 Sounding at Tel Sasa: Excavation Report and Radiometric Dating, Atiqot 28, 1993, 63–76
Stern 1968. E. Stern, The Dating of Stratum II at Tell Abu Hawam, IEJ 18.4, 1968, 213–219
Stern 1979. E. Stern, Excavations at Tel Mevorakh (1973–1976). Part One: From the Iron Age to the Roman Period, Qedem 9 (Jerusalem 1979)
Stern 2007. E. Stern, En-Gedi Excavations 1. Final Report (1961 1965) (Jerusalem 2007)
Stern 2016. E. Stern, The Geography of Hellenistic ‘Akko-Ptolemais, in: M. Hartal – D. Syon – E. Stern – A. Tatcher, ‘Akko 2. The 1991–1998 Excavations. The Early Periods, IAA Reports 60 (Jerusalem 2016) 227–234
Tal 2005. O. Tal, Persian Period Remains at Rishon Le-Zion, in: B. Sass – I. Roll (eds.): Salvage Excavation Reports 2, 2005, 30–37
Tal 2006. O. Tal, The Archaeology of Hellenistic Palestine Between Tradition and Renewal (Jerusalem 2006) (Hebrew)
Tal 2011. O. Tal, Hellenistic Foundations in Palestine, in: L. L. Grabbe – O. Lipschits (eds.), Judah between East and West. The Transition from Persian to Greek Rule (ca. 400–200 BCE), a Conference Held at Tel Aviv University, 17–19 April 2007, Library of Second Temple Studies (London 2011) 242–254
Tal 2014. O. Tal, A Late Fourth/Early Third Century B.C. Farmstead at Ĥolot Rishon Le-Zion (South), Israel, AA 2014, 37–57
Tal 2018. O. Tal, Hellenistic Philoteria in its Architectural and Historical Contexts, in: R. Greenberg – O. Tal – T. Da’adli (eds.), Bet Yeraḥ 3. Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Ṣinnabra, The 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, IAA Reports 61 (Jerusalem 2018) 97–121
Tcherikower 1937. V. Tcherikower, Palestine under the Ptolemies (a Contribution to the Study of the Zenon Papyri), Mizraim 4–5, 1937, 9–90
Tepper – Peleg-Barkat 2019. Y. Tepper – O. Peleg-Barkat, Horvat ‘Eleq at Ramat HaNadiv: A New Appraisal of the Fortified Complex, Qadmoniot 158, 2019, 92–98 (Hebrew)
Thorne 2007. J. A. Thorne, Warfare and Agriculture: The Economic Impact of Devastation in Classical Greece, in: E. L. Wheeler (ed.), The Armies of Classical Greece (London 2007) 225–253
Tzaferis 1992. V. Tzaferis, The »God who is in Dan« and the cult of Pan at Banias in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, Eretz Israel 23, 1992, 128*–135* (Hebrew)
Ussishkin 2004. D. Ussishkin, The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachish, 1973–1994, Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 22 (Tel Aviv 2004) 2174–2194
Ussishkin 2012. D. Ussishkin, On Nehemia’s City Wall and the Size of Jerusalem During the Persian Period. An Archaeologist’s View, in: I. Kalimi (ed.), New Perspectives on Ezra Nehemiah. History and Historiography, Text, Literature, and Interpretation (Winona Lake, IN 2012) 101–130
Varga 2005. D. Varga, Tel Ashdod, ExcIsr 117, 2005 https://www.hadashotesi.org.il/Report_Detail. aspx?id=200&mag_id=110
van Wees 2010. H. van Wees, Genocide in the Ancient World, in: D. Bloxham – A. D. Moses (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies (Oxford 2010) 239–258
van Wees 2011. H. van Wees, Defeat and Destruction: The Ethics of Ancient Greek Warfare, in: M. Linder – S. Tausend (eds.), »Böser Krieg«. Exzessive Gewalt in der Antiken Kriegsführung und Strategien zu deren Vermeidung (Graz 2011) 69–110
Welles 1938. C. B. Welles, The Inscriptions, in: C. H. Kraeling (ed.), Gerasa. City of the Decapolis (New Haven, CT 1938) 355–494
Welles 1965. C. B. Welles, Alexander’s Historical Achievement, Greece & Rome 12.2, 1965, 216–228
Wheatley 1995. P. Wheatley, Ptolemy Soter’s Annexation of Syria 320 B.C., The Classical Quarterly 45.2, 1995, 433–440
Wheatley 1998. P. Wheatley, The Chronology of the Third Diadoch War, 315-311 B. C., Phoenix 52.3–4, 1998, 257–281
Wheatley 2003. P. Wheatley, The Mint at Tyre after the Battle of Ipsus, in: W. Heckel – L. A. Tritle (eds.), Crossroads of History. The Age of Alexander (Claremont, CA 2003) 183–216
Yadin 1972. Y. Yadin, Hazor: The Head of all those Kingdoms (Joshua 11:10); with a chapter on Israelite Megiddo, The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy (London 1972)
Yadin et al. 1958. Y. Yadin – Y. Aharoni – R. Amiran – T. Dothan – I. Dunayevsky – J. Perrot, Hazor 1. An Account of the First Season of Excavations, 1955 (Jerusalem 1958)
Yankelevitch 2006. S. Yankelevitch, Iron Age, Persian and Hellenistic, in: R. R. Stieglitz (ed.), Tel Tanninim: Excavations at Krokodeilon Polis 1996–1999, ASOR Reports 10 (Boston, MA 2006), 101–124
Yannai 2010. E. Yannai, A Salvage Excavation at Ḥorbat Roẓeẓ, Atiqot 62, 2010, 107–137
Zangenberg – van de Zande 2010. J. K. Zangenberg – D. van de Zande, Urbanization, in: C. Herzer (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine (Oxford 2010) 165–188
Zuckerman 2012. S. Zuckerman, The Pottery of Stratum 9 (The Persian Period), in: De Groot – Bernick-Greenberg 2012, 31–50
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Archaeopress and the Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
