Developing reproducible lidar classifications for Greek archaeology: assessing an area-based verification strategy for lidar-based archaeological prospection in the Cyclades, Greece
Abstract
Over the last decade, archaeologists around the world have increasingly added lidar data from aerial and terrestrial platforms to their project toolkit. As lidar-based archaeology has proliferated, experience with the technology has not been evenly distributed. The technology garnered recognition for its ability to precisely map ground surfaces under dense canopy in the heavily forested regions of Mesoamerica, Southeast Asia, and parts of Europe.1 In the Maya Lowlands, researchers acknowledged the revolutionary nature of the technology early on.2 Subsequent years of use have allowed its applications to mature, as seen in studies analyzing patterns of social inequality and redefining ancient Maya rural land use.3 Importantly, this maturation has allowed for the refinement of survey methods as archaeologists have confronted the mistakes of early applications, for example issues of mismatching verification procedures and representational issues in classified datasets.
References
Agapiou, A., A. Dakouri-Hild, S. Davis, E. Andrikou and W. Rourk 2022. The Kotroni Archaeological Research Project (KASP): evaluating ancient Aphidna using multimodal landscape analysis. Journal of Greek Archaeology 7: 413–434.
Athanasoulis, D., A. Knodell, Ž. Tankosić, Z. Papadopoulou, M. Sigala, C. Diamanti, Y. Kourayos and A. Papadimitriou 2021. The Small Cycladic Islands Project (2019–2020): a comparative survey of uninhabited landscapes near Paros and Antiparos, Greece. Antiquity 95: 12.
Attema, P., J. Bintliff, M. Van Leusen, P. Bes, T. De Haas, D. Donev, W. Jongman, E. Kaptijn, V. Mayoral, S. Menchelli, M. Pasquinucci, S. Rosen, J. García Sánchez, L. Gutierrez Soler, D. Stone, G. Tol, F. Vermeulen, A. Vionis 2020. A guide to good practice in Mediterranean surface survey projects. Journal of Greek Archaeology 5: 1–62.
Beach, T., S. Luzzadder-Beach, S. Krause, T. Guderjan, F. Valdez, J.C. Fernandez-Diaz, S. Eshleman and C. Doyle 2019. Ancient Maya wetland fields revealed under tropical forest canopy from laser scanning and multiproxy evidence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116: 21469–21477.
Bevan, A. and J. Conolly 2011. Terraced fields and Mediterranean landscape structure: An analytical case study from Antikythera, Greece. Ecological Modelling 222: 1303–1314.
Bickler, S.H. 2021. Machine Learning Arrives in Archaeology. Advances in Archaeological Practice 9: 186–191.
Blanton, R.E. 2001. Mediterranean myopia. Antiquity 75: 627–629.
Braje, T.J., T.P. Leppard, S.M. Fitzpatrick and J.M. Erlandson 2017. Archaeology, historical ecology and anthropogenic island ecosystems. Environmental Conservation 44: 286–297.
Brown, A., K. Walsh, D. Fallu, S. Cucchiaro and P. Tarolli 2020. European agricultural terraces and lynchets: from archaeological theory to heritage management. World Archaeology 52: 566–588.
Campbell, J.B., R.H. Wynne and V.A. Thomas 2023. Introduction to remote sensing 6. edition. New York: Guilford Press.
Campana, S.R.L. 2018. Mapping the Archaeological Continuum. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Canuto, M.A., F. Estrada-Belli, T.G. Garrison, S.D. Houston, M.J. Acuña, M. Kováč, D. Marken, P. Nondédéo, L. Auld-Thomas, C. Castanet, D. Chatelain, C.R. Chiriboga, T. Drápela, T. Lieskovský, A. Tokovinine, A. Velasquez, J.C. Fernández-Díaz, R. Shrestha 2018. Ancient lowland Maya complexity as revealed by airborne laser scanning of northern Guatemala. Science 361.
Caraher, W., S. Gallimore, D. Nakassis and S.A. James 2020. Survey and the 7th century in the western Argolid. Journal of Greek Archaeology 5.
Chase, A.F., D.Z. Chase, C.T. Fisher, S.J. Leisz and J.F. Weishampel 2011. Airborne LiDAR, archaeology, and the ancient Maya landscape at Caracol, Belize. Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 387– 398.
Chase, A.F., D.Z. Chase, C.T. Fisher, S.J. Leisz and J.F. Weishampel 2012. Geospatial revolution and remote sensing LiDAR in Mesoamerican archaeology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109: 12916–12921.
Cherry, J.F. 2003. Archaeology Beyond the Site: Regional Survey and Its Future, In J.K. Papadopoulos and R.M. Leventhal (eds) Theory and Practice in Mediterranean Archaeology: 137– 160. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press at UCLA.
Chiba, T., S. Kaneta and Y. Suzuki 2008. Red Relief Image Map: New Visualization Method for Three Dimensional Data. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences 37: 1071–1076.
Cohen-Smith, H., S.H. Bickler, B. Jone, B. Larsen and A. Apfel 2022. New Tech for Old Jobs: Handheld LiDAR for Feature Recording. Archaeology in New Zealand 65: 14–27.
Cowley, D.C. 2016. What Do the Patterns Mean? Archaeological Distributions and Bias in Survey Data, In M. Forte and S. Campana (eds) Digital Methods and Remote Sensing in Archaeology: 147– 170. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Crabb, N., C. Carey, A.J. Howard and M. Brolly 2023. Lidar visualization techniques for the construction of geoarchaeological deposit models: An overview and evaluation in alluvial environments. Geoarchaeology 38: 420–444.
Dawson, H. 2019. As Good as It Gets? ‘Optimal’ Marginality in the Longue Durée of the Mediterranean Islands. Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 7: 451–465.
Dawson, H. 2021. Network science and island archeology: Advancing the debate. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 16: 213–230.
Doneus, M. 2013. Openness as Visualization Technique for Interpretative Mapping of Airborne Lidar Derived Digital Terrain Models. Remote Sensing 5: 6427–6442.
Doneus, M., N. Doneus and D. Cowley 2022. Confronting Complexity: Interpretation of a Dry Stone Walled Landscape on the Island of Cres, Croatia. Land 11: 1672.
Doneus, M., G. Mandlburger and N. Doneus 2020. Archaeological Ground Point Filtering of Airborne Laser Scan Derived Point-Clouds in a Difficult Mediterranean Environment. Journal of Computer Applications in Archaeology 3: 92–108.
Dong, P. and Q. Chen 2018. LiDAR remote sensing and applications. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor and Francis. Evelpidou, N., A. Petropoulos, A. Karkani and G. Saitis 2021. Evidence of coastal changes in the west coast of Naxos Island, Cyclades, Greece. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9: 1427.
Fernandez-Diaz, J.C., W. Carter, R. Shrestha and C. Glennie 2014. Now You See It… Now You Don’t: Understanding Airborne Mapping LiDAR Collection and Data Product Generation for Archaeological Research in Mesoamerica. Remote Sensing 6: 9951-10001.
Fernández-Lozano, J., J.J. Palao-Vicente, J.A. Blanco- Sánchez, G. Gutiérrez-Alonso, J. Remondo, J. Bonachea, M. Morellón and A. González-Díez 2019. Gold-bearing Plio-Quaternary deposits: Insights from airborne LiDAR technology into the landscape evolution during the early Roman mining works in north-west Spain. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 24: 843–855.
Fitzpatrick, S.M., V.D. Thompson, A.S. Poteate, M.F. Napolitano and J.M. Erlandson 2016. Marginalization of the Margins: The Importance of Smaller Islands in Human Prehistory. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 11: 155– 170.
Fontana, G. 2022. Italy’s Hidden Hillforts: A Large- Scale Lidar-Based Mapping of Samnium. Journal of Field Archaeology 47(4): 245–261.
Fontana, G. 2025. Issues of Sampling and Representativeness in Large‐Scale LiDAR‐Derived Archaeological Surveys in Mediterranean Contexts. Archaeological Prospection: 32: 103–117.
Garrison, T.G., D. Richmond, P. Naughton, E. Lo, S. Trinh, Z. Barnes, A. Lin, C. Schurgers, R. Kastner, S.E. Newman 2016. Tunnel Vision: Documenting Excavations in Three Dimensions with Lidar Technology. Advances in Archaeological Practice 4: 192–204.
Garrison, T.G., A.E. Thompson, S. Krause, S. Eshleman, J.C. Fernandez-Diaz, J.D. Baldwin and R. Cambranes 2023. Assessing the lidar revolution in the Maya lowlands: A geographic approach to understanding feature classification accuracy. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 47: 270–292.
Garrison, T.G., S. Houston and O. Alcover Firpi 2019. Recentering the rural: Lidar and articulated landscapes among the Maya. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 53: 133–146.
Godone, D., D. Giordan. and M. Baldo 2018. Rapid mapping application of vegetated terraces based on high resolution airborne LiDAR. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 9: 970–985.
Gołębiowska, I. and A. Çöltekin 2022. What’s wrong with the rainbow? An interdisciplinary review of empirical evidence for and against the rainbow color scheme in visualizations. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 194: 195–208.
Grammer, B., E. Draganits, M. Gretscher and U. Muss 2017. LiDAR-guided Archaeological Survey of a Mediterranean Landscape: Lessons from the Ancient Greek Polis of Kolophon (Ionia, western Anatolia): LiDAR-guided Archaeological Survey of Kolophon. Archaeological Prospection 24: 311–333.
Hutson, S.R. 2015. Adapting LiDAR data for regional variation in the tropics: A case study from the northern Maya Lowlands. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 4: 252–263.
Hutson, S.R., B. Kidder, C. Lamb, D. Vallejo-Cáliz and J. Welch 2016. Small Buildings and Small budgets: making lidar work in northern Yucatan, Mexico. Advances in Archaeological Practice 4: 268–283.
Inomata, T., J.C. Fernandez-Diaz, D. Triadan, M. García Mollinedo, F. Pinzón, M. García Hernández, A. Flores, A. Sharpe, T. Beach, G.W.L. Hodgins, J.J. Durón Díaz, A. Guerra Luna, L. Guerrero Chávez, M. de Lourdes Hernández Jiménez, M. Moreno Díaz 2021. Origins and Spread of Formal Ceremonial Complexes in the Olmec and Maya Regions Revealed by Airborne Lidar. Nature Human Behaviour 5: 1487–1501.
Knodell, A.R. 2025. Survey and landscape archaeology in Greece in the 21st century. Archaeological Reports 71.
Knodell, A. and T. Leppard 2018. Regional approaches to society and complexity: Setting an agenda. In A.R. Knodell and T. Leppard (eds) Regional approaches to society and complexity: Studies in honor of John F. Cherry: 1–23. Sheffield.
Knodell, A.R., D. Athanasoulis, Ž. Tankosić, J.F. Cherry, T.K. Garonis, E.I. Levine, D. Nenova and H.Ç. Öztürk 2022. An island archaeology of uninhabited landscapes: Offshore islets near Paros, Greece (the Small Cycladic Islands Project). The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 17: 475–511.
Knodell, A.R., D. Athanasoulis, J.F. Cherry, D. Nenova, H.Ç. Öztürk and Z. Papadopoulou 2025. A regional survey of the uninhabit 94(4): 619–717. ed islands of the western Cyclades: The Small Cycladic Islands Project 2021-2022. Hesperia 94.4.
Knodell, A.R., T.C. Wilkinson, T.P. Leppard and H.A. Orengo 2023. Survey Archaeology in the Mediterranean World: Regional Traditions and Contributions to Long-Term History. Journal of Archaeological Research 31: 263–329.
Kokalj, Ž. and M. Somrak 2019. Why Not a Single Image? Combining Visualizations to Facilitate Fieldwork and On-Screen Mapping. Remote Sensing 11: 747.
Li, X., C. Liu, Z. Wang, X. Xie, D. Li and L. Xu 2021. Airborne LiDAR: state-of-the-art of system design, technology and application. Measurement Science and Technology 32: 032002.
Lozić, E. and B. Štular 2021. Documentation of Archaeology-Specific Workflow for Airborne LiDAR Data Processing. Geosciences 11: 26.
Lucas, T. and J.G. Sánchez 2022. Opération LiDAR à Akraiphia et au Val des Muses, Béotie (2021). Bulletin archéologique des Écoles françaises à l’étranger. http://journals.openedition.org/ baefe.
Masini, N., N. Abate, F. Gizzi, V. Vitale, A. Minervino Amodio, M. Sileo, M. Biscione, R. Lasaponara, M. Bentivenga, F. Cavalcante 2022. UAV LiDAR Based Approach for the Detection and Interpretation of Archaeological Micro Topography under Canopy – The Rediscovery of Perticara (Basilicata, Italy). Remote Sensing 14: 6074.
Meyer, N. 2023. Finding Sites in Mediterranean Survey. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 35: 143–168.
Quintus, S., S.S. Day and N.J. Smith 2017. The Efficacy and Analytical Importance of Manual Feature Extraction Using Lidar Datasets. Advances in Archaeological Practice 5: 351–364.
Roussel, J.-R., D. Auty, N.C. Coops, P. Tompalski, T.R.H. Goodbody, A.S. Meador, J.F. Bourdon, F. de Boissieu and A. Achim 2020. lidR: An R package for analysis of Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data. Remote Sensing of Environment 251: 112061.
Roussos, K. 2020. Understanding the Medieval Cyclades through landscape archaeology (8th – 12th century AD). Journal of Greek Archaeology 5: 426-447.
Searle, M.P. and T.N. Lamont 2022. Compressional origin of the Aegean Orogeny, Greece. Geoscience Frontiers 13: 101049.
Štular, B., Ž. Kokalj, K. Oštir and L. Nuninger 2012. Visualization of lidar-derived relief models for detection of archaeological features. Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 3354–3360.
Štular, B. and E. Lozić 2020. Comparison of Filters for Archaeology-Specific Ground Extraction from Airborne LiDAR Point Clouds. Remote Sensing 12: 3025.
Štular, B., E. Lozić and S. Eichert 2021. Airborne LiDAR-Derived Digital Elevation Model for Archaeology. Remote Sensing 13: 1855.
Štular, B., E. Lozić and S. Eichert 2023. Interpolation of airborne LiDAR data for archaeology. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 48: 103840.
Thompson, A.E., G.M. Feinman, M. Lemly and K.M Prufer 2021. Inequality, networks and the financing of Classic Maya political power. Journal of Archaeological Science 133: 105441.
Turner, S., T. Kinnaird, G. Varinlioğlu, T.E. Şerifoğlu, E. Koparal, V. Demirciler, D. Athanasoulis, K. Odegård, J. Crow, M. Jackson, J. Bolòs, J. Carlos Sánchez-Pardo, F. Carrer, D. Sanderson, A. Turner 2021. Agricultural terraces in the Mediterranean: medieval intensification revealed by OSL profiling and dating. Antiquity 95: 773–790.
Vinci, G., F. Vanzani, A. Fontana and S. Campana 2024. LiDAR Applications in Archaeology: A Systematic Review. Archaeological Prospection: 1–21.
Whitelaw, T.M. 1991. The ethnoarchaeology of recent rural settlement and land use. In J.F. Cherry, J.L. Davis and E. Mantzourani, Northwest Keos. Landscape Archaeology as Long-Term History: 403–454. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Wiersma, C., P. Bes, M.W. Van IJzendoorn, A. Wiznura and S. Voutsaki 2022. The site of Ayios Vasileios in Laconia from the prehistoric to the early modern period. Results of the pedestrian field survey. Journal of Greek Archaeology 7: 122–172.