Encountering the Kura-Araxes. Changes in the Malatya plain at the end of the 4th millennium
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32028/ajnes.v16i1-2.1835Keywords:
Arslantepe, Kura-Araxes, Uruk, East Anatolia, South Caucasus, pastoralism, transhumance, mobility, cultural encounterAbstract
The encounter of the communities of the Anatolian Upper Euphrates with the Kura-Araxes cultural traditions was a long and complex process that cannot be reduced to the abrupt ‘arrival’ of migrant communities from East Anatolia or South Caucasus. The historical, political and cultural ‘complexities’ embedded in this encounter are best exemplified by the case of Period VIB1 at Arslantepe, in the Malatya plain (Eastern Turkey). We examine at first the ‘structural’ and historical premises of this encounter by examining the Late Chalcolithic evidence from Arslantepe Period VIA witnessing the construction of a monumental palatial complex and the formation of a strong political élite. We believe that the political and economic changes witnessed in Period VIA also generated a sector of specialised herders that could have taken part to a wider sphere of interaction with other communities living in the wider mountainous areas of Central and North-Eastern Anatolia. In the second part of the paper, we examine more thoroughly Period VIB1, which followed the destruction of the palatial complex of Period VIA and that marks the earliest appearance of Kura-Araxes cultural traits in the Malatya region. Period VIB1 witnesses the temporary and reiterated occupations of specialized herders. Though a series of traits of continuity link cultural traditions and husbandry strategies of the Period VIB1 herders with those of Period VIA, the strong Kura-Araxes related ceramic repertoire of the Period VIB1 herders’signals a growing interaction with the regions of East Anatolia and South Caucasus. We suggest that the mobility of these herders could have fostered dynamics of cultural encounter and assimilation of the Kura-Araxes traditions. In the final section, we present new ceramic evidence from Period VIB1. The post-firing incised ceramics from Period VIB1 find close analogies with those from East Anatolia and South Caucasus in Phase Kura-Araxes I. Does not only this evidence confirm direct contacts with the eastern Kura-Araxes communities but the contexts of retrieval of these ceramics at Arslantepe add new suggestions on the ceremonial way in which the encounters between specialised herders from Arslantepe and the Kura-Araxes communities from East Anatolia and South Caucasus might have taken place.
References
Adams, R. McC. 2004. Reflections on the early southern Mesopotamian economy, in Feinman, Nicolas 2004 41-59.
Alparslan, M., Doğan-Alparslan, M., Peker, H. (eds) 2007. VITA: Festschrift in Honor of Belkıs Dinçol and Ali Dinçol. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları.
Badalyan, R. 2014. New data on the periodization and chronology of the Kura-Araxes culture in Armenia. Paléorient 40/2: 71-92.
Badalyan, R. 2021. From homogeneity to heterogeneity. The periodization and chronology of Kura-Araxes: The view from Armenia, in Giemsch, Hansen 2021: 211-222.
Badalyan, R.S., Avetisyan, P.S. 2007. Bronze and Early Iron Age Archaeological Sites in Armenia, I. Mt. Aragats and its Surrounding Region (BAR International Series 1697). Oxford: Archaeopress.
Balossi Restelli, F., Sadori, L, Masi, A. 2010. Agriculture at Arslantepe at the end of the IV millennium BC. Did the centralised political institutions have an influence on farming practices? in: Frangipane 2010: 103-117.
Balossi Restelli, F. 2019. Arslantepe, Period VII. The Development of a Ceremonial/Political Centre in the First Half of the 4th Millennium BC (Late Chalcolithic 3-4) (Arslantepe, Excavations and Researches at Arslantepe-Malatya, vol. 2). Roma: Arbor Sapientiae Editore.
Balossi Restelli, F., Cardarelli, A., Di Nocera, G.M., Manzanilla, L., Mori, L., Palumbi, G., Pittman, H. (eds) 2020. Pathways through Arslantepe: Essays in Honour of Marcella Frangipane. Roma: Sapienza Università di Roma / Viterbo: Edizioni Sette Città.
Barth, F. 1969. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Oslo: Universitetforlaget.
Bartosiewicz, L. 2010. Herding in period VIA. Development and changes from period VII, in: Frangipane 2010: 119-148.
Bartosiewicz, L, Jerem, E, Meid, W (eds) 1997. Man and the animal world. Studies in archaeozoology, archaeology, anthropology and palaeolinguistics in memoriam Sandor Bököny. Budapest: Archaeolingua.
Behm-Blanke, M.R. 1984. Hassek Höyük. Vorläufiger Bericht über die Ausgrabungen der Jahre 1981-1983. IstM(itt.) 34: 31-149.
Bieliński, P., Gawlikowski, M., Koliński, R., Ławecka, D., Sołtysiak, A., Wygnańska, Z. (eds) 2014. Proceedings of the 8th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. 30 April – 4 May 2012, University of Warsaw, vol. 3. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Burney, C. 1958. Eastern Anatolia in the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. AnSt 8: 157-209.
Çalışkan Akgül, H. 2012. Looking to the west: The Late Chalcolithic Red-Black Ware of the Upper Euphrates region. Origini 34: 97-109.
Çalışkan Akgül, H. 2020. Late Chalcolithic Anatolian fruit-stands: Significance, function and cultural interactions, in Balossi Restelli et al. 2020: 85-97.
Casanova, M., Vila, E., Mashkour, M., Vallet, R., Meyer, J.W. (eds) 2017. The Iranian Plateau during the Bronze Age. Development of Urbanisation, Production and Trade. Proceedings of the Conference, Lyon 29-30 May 2014. Lyon: Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée.
Chubinishvili, T. 1963. Amiranis Gora: masalebi Mesxet‘-Javaxet‘is użvelesi istoriisat‘vis (Amiranis Gora. Materials on the Ancient History of Meskheti-Javakheti). Tbilisi: Sabčot‘a Sak‘art‘velo (in Georgian with Summary in Russian).
D’Anna, M.B. 2010. The ceramic containers of Period VIA. Food control at the time of centralization, in: Frangipane 2010: 176-191.
D’Anna, M.B. 2012. Between inclusion and exclusion: Feasting and redistribution of meals at Late Chalcolithic Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey), in: Pollock 2012: 97-123.
D’Anna, M.B., Palumbi, G. 2017. Uruk, pastoralism and secondary products: Was it a revolution? A view from the Anatolian highlands, in: Stockhammer, Maran 2017: 29-39.
Decaix, A., Berthon, R., Mohaseb, F.A., Tengberg, M. 2017. Toward a definition of the Kura-Araxes agropastoral systems, in: Casanova et al. 2017: 89-98.
Dengiz, O. 2019. Bati ve Orta Anadolu›da Ilk Tunç Çaği’nda siyah ağiz kenarli (black-topped) kaseler. Unpublished Master Dissertation, University of Bilecik.
Di Nocera, G.M. 2010. Metals and metallurgy. Their place in the Arslantepe society between the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, in: Frangipane 2010: 255-274.
Durak, N., Frangipane, M. (eds) 2019. Arslantepe. Proceedings of the I. International Archaeology Symposium. Malatya: Inönü University Press.
Esin, U. 1979. Tepecik Excavations, 1973, in: Keban Project 1973 Activities: 97-112. Ankara: Middle East Technical University.
Esin, U. 1982. Tepecik Excavations, 1974, in: Keban Project 1974-75 Activities: 95-118. Ankara: Middle East Technical University.
Feinman, G.M., Nicolas, L.M. (eds) 2004. Archaeological Perspectives on Political Economies. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press.
Fragnoli, P. 2018. Pottery production in pastoral communities: Archaeometric analysis on the LC3-EBA1 Handmade Burnished Ware from Arslantepe (in the Anatolian Upper Euphrates). JAS: Reports 18: 318-332.
Frangipane, M. 2001. Centralization processes in Greater Mesopotamia. Uruk ‘expansion’ as the climax of systemic interactions among areas of the Greater Mesopotamian region, in: Rothman 2001: 307-
Frangipane, M. 2010a. The political economy of the early central institutions at Arslantepe. Concluding remarks, in: Frangipane 2010: 289-307.
Frangipane, M. (ed.) 2010b. Economic Centralisation in Formative States. The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Economic System in 4th millennium Arslantepe (SPO 3). Roma: Sapienza Università di Roma.
Frangipane, M. 2012. Fourth millennium Arslantepe: the development of a centralised society without urbanisation. Origini 34: 19-40.
Frangipane, M. 2014. After collapse: continuity and disruption in the settlement by Kura-Araxes-linked pastoral groups at Arslantepe-Malatya (Turkey). New data. Paléorient 40.2: 169-182.
Frangipane, M. 2015. Different types of multiethnic societies and different patterns of development and change in the prehistoric Near East. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112: 9182-9189.
Frangipane, M. 2016. The development of centralised societies in Greater Mesopotamia and the foundation of economic inequality, in: Meller et al. 2016: 469-490.
Frangipane, M. 2017. The role of metal procurement in the wide interregional connections of Arslantepe during the Late 4th –Early 3rd Millennia BC, in: Maner et al. 2017: 186-210.
Frangipane, M. 2018. Different trajectories in State formation in Greater Mesopotamia: a view from Arslantepe (Turkey). JAR 26/1: 3-63.
Frangipane, M. 2019a. The secularization of power: A precocious birth and collapse of a palatial system at Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey) in the 4th Millennium BC, in: Wicke 2019: 57-75.
Frangipane M. 2019b. Arslantepe. The rise and development of a political centre: From temple to palace to a fortified citadel, in: Durak, Frangipane 2019: 70-104.
Frangipane M. 2019c. Assemblage of cretulae from the end of Period VII: Administered redistribution in ceremonial contexts. Preliminary remarks, in: Balossi Restelli 2019: 190-215.
Frangipane, M, Palmieri, A. (eds) 1983. Perspectives on protourbanization in Eastern Anatolia: Arslantepe (Malatya). An interim report on 1975-1983 campaigns (Origini 12/2: 287-668).
Frangipane, M, Siracusano, G. 1997. Changes in subsistence strategies in East Anatolia during the 4th and 3rd Millennium BC, in: Bartosiewicz et al. 1997: 237-246.
Frangipane, M., Di Nocera, G.M., Hauptmann, A., Morbidelli, P., Palmieri, A.M., Sadori, L., Schultz, M., Schmidt-Schultz, T. 2001. New symbols of a new power in a ‘royal’ tomb from 3000 BC Arslantepe, Malatya (Turkey). Paléorient 27/2: 105-139.
Frangipane, M., Ferioli, P., Fiandra, E., Laurito, R., Pittman, H. 2007. Arslantepe Cretulae. An Early Centralised Administrative System Before Writing (Arslantepe V). Roma: Università di Roma La Sapienza.
Frangipane, M., Palumbi, G. 2007. Red-Black ware, pastoralism, trade, and Anatolian-Transcaucasian interactions in the 4th-3rd millennium BC, in: Lyonnet 2007: 233-256.
Gamkrelidze, G. (ed.) 2010. Rescue Archaeology in Georgia: Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan South Caucasian Pipelines. Tbilisi: Georgina National Museum.
Giemsch, L., Hansen, S. (eds) 2021. The Caucasus. Bridge between the Urban Centres in Mesopotamia and the Pontic Steppes in the 4th and 3rd Millennium BC. The Transfer of Knowledge and Technologies between East and West in the Bronze Age. Proceedings of the Caucasus Conference, Frankfurt am Main, November 28 – December 1, 2018 (Schriften des Archäologischen Museums Frankfurt 34). Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Schnell & Steiner GmbH.
Gogochuri, G., Orjonikidze, A. 2010. The Kura-Araxes culture settlement and cemetery at Tiselis Seri, in: Gamkrelidze 2010: 115-128.
Greenberg, R. 2007. Transcaucasian colors: Khirbet Kerak Ware at Khirbet Kerak (Tel Bet Yerah), in: Lyonnet 2007: 257-268.
Greenberg, R., Palumbi, G. 2015. Corridors and colonies: Comparing fourth–third millennia BC interactions in Southeast Anatolia and the Levant, in: Knapp, van Dommelen 2015: 111-138.
Grifoni, C., Palumbi, G. 2020. Feasting the collapse. Ceremonial buildings at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age between highlands and lowlands: some considerations, in: Balossi Restelli et al. 2020: 99-112.
Hauptmann, A., Schmitt-Strecker, S., Begemann, F., Palmieri, A. 2002. Chemical composition and lead isotopy of metal objects from the ‘Royal’ Tomb and other related finds at Arslantepe, Eastern Anatolia. Paléorient 28/2: 43-69.
Herrscher, E., Poulmarc’h, M., Palumbi, G., Paz, S., Rova, E., Gogochuri, G., Longford, C., Jalabadze, M., Bitadze, L., Vanishvili, N., Le Mort, F., Chataigner, C., Badalyan, R., Guy, A. 2021. Dietary practices, cultural and social identity in the Early Bronze Age southern Caucasus: The case of the Kura-Araxes culture. Paléorient 47/1: 149-172.
Kakhiani, K., Sagona, A., Sagona, C., Kvavadze, E., Bedianashvili, G., Messager, E., Martin, L., Herrscher, E., Martkoplishvili, I., Birkett-Rees, J., Longford, C. 2013. Archaeological investigations at Chobareti in southern Georgia, the Caucasus. ANES 50: 1-138.
Knapp, B, van Dommelen, P. (ed.) 2015. The Cambridge Prehistory of the Bronze and Iron Age Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kushnareva, K.K. 1997. The Southern Caucasus in Prehistory: Stages of Cultural and Socioeconomic Development From The Eighth to The Second Millennium B.C., transl. by H.N. Michael. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum.
Kvavadze, E., Boschian, G., Chichinadze, M., Gagoshidze, I., Gavagnin, K., Martkoplishvili, I., Rova, E. 2019. Palynological and archaeological evidence for ritual use of wine in the Kura-Araxes Period at Aradetis Orgora (Georgia, Caucasus). JFA 44: 500-522.
Longford, C., Sagona, A. 2021. The Kura-Araxes economy: Mobile pastoralism or sedentary agriculture? Perspectives from Sos Höyük, in: Marro, Stöllner 2021: 347-374.
Lyonnet, B. (ed.) 2007. Les cultures du Caucase (VIe-IIIe millénaires avant notre ère). Leurs relations avec le Proche-Orient. Paris: CNRS Editions.
Maner, Ç., Horowitz, M.T., Gilbert, A.S. (eds) 2017. Overturning Certainties in Near Eastern Archaeology. A Festschrift in Honor of K. Aslıhan Yener (CHANE 90). Leiden and Boston: Brill.
Marro, C., Stöllner, T. (eds) 2021. On Salt, Copper and Gold. The Origins of Early Mining and Metallurgy in the Caucasus. Lyon: MOM Editions.
Meller, H., Hahn, H.P., Jung, R., Risch, R. (eds) 2016. Arm und Reich – Zur Ressourcenverteilung in prähistorischen Gesellschaften / Rich and Poor – Competing for Resources in Prehistoric Societies (Tagungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle 14/II). Halle (Saale): Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte.
Mouralis, D., Massussi, M., Palumbi, G., Akkoprü, E., Balossi Restelli, F., Brunstein, D., Frangipane, M., Gratuze, B., Mokadem, F., Robin, A.-K. 2018. The procurement of obsidian at Arslantepe (Eastern Anatolia) during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age: connections with Anatolia and Caucasus. QI 467: 342-359.
Müller, V. (ed.) 2018. Archaeology of Religion & Ritual. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Muller Celka, S., Borgna, E. (eds) 2011. Ancestral Landscapes: Burial Mounds in the Copper and Bronze Ages. Lyon: Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient.
Nissen, H.J. 2015. Urbanization and the technique of communication: the Mesopotamian city of Uruk during the fourth millennium BCE, in: Yoffee 2015: 113-130.
Osten von der, H. 1937. The Alishar Hüyük. Seasons of 1930-32, Part I. Chicago: The Universityu of Chicago Press.
Palmieri, A. 1973. Scavi nell’area sud-occidentale di Arslantepe. Origini 7: 55-228.
Palmieri, A.M., Fornaseri, M., Malpieri, L., Taddeucci, A. 1978. Analisi di ossidiane dai livelli tardo-calcolitici di Arslantepe. Quaderni de La Ricerca Scientifica 100: 365-373.
Palmieri, AM, Cellai, L. 1983. Sedimentological data for a history of a tell. Origini 12/2: 629-636.
Palumbi, G. 2007-2008. From collective burials to symbols of power. The translation of role and meanings of the stone-lined cist burial tradition from Southern Caucasus to the Euphrates Valley. Scienze dell’Antichità 14: 17-44.
Palumbi, G. 2008a. Mid-fourth millennium red-black burnished wares from Anatolia: a cross comparison, in: Rubinson, Sagona 2008: 39-58.
Palumbi, G. 2008b. The Red and Black. Social and cultural interaction between the Upper Euphrates and Southern Caucasus communities in the fourth and third millennium BC (SPO 2). Roma: Università di Roma La Sapienza.
Palumbi, G. 2010. Pastoral models and centralised animal husbandry. The case of Arslantepe, in: Frangipane 2010: 149-163.
Palumbi, G. 2011. The Arslantepe royal tomb and the ‘manipulation’ of the kurgan ideology in Eastern Anatolia at the beginning of the third millennium, in: Muller Celka, Borgna 2011: 47-60.
Palumbi, G. 2012. Bridging the frontiers. Pastoral groups in the Upper Euphrates region in the early third millennium BC. Origini 34: 261-278.
Palumbi, G. 2016. The Early Bronze Age of the Southern Caucasus. Oxford Handbooks Online. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.013.14. Available from: http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935413.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935413-e-14
Palumbi, G. 2017. Push or pull factors? The Kura-Araxes ‘expansion’ from a different perspective: the Upper Euphrates Valley. Subartu 38: 113-132.
Palumbi, G., Alvaro, C., Grifoni, C., Frangipane, M. 2017. A ‘communal’ building of the beginning of the Early Bronze Age at Arslantepe-Malatya (Turkey). Spatio-functional analysis and interpretation of the archaeological context. Paléorient 43/1: 89-123.
Palumbi, G., Chataigner, C. 2014. The Kura-Araxes Culture from the Caucasus to Iran, Anatolia and the Levant: Between unity and diversity. A synthesis. Paléorient 40/2: 247-260.
Peltenburg, E.J. (ed.) 2007. Euphrates River Valley Settlement: The Carchemish Sector in the Third Millennium BC (Levant Supplementary Series 5). Oxford: Oxbow.
Pollock, S. 1999. Ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pollock, S. 2001. The Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia, in: Rothman 2001: 181-231.
Pollock, S. (ed.) 2012. Between Feasts and Daily Meals: Toward an Archaeology of Commensal Spaces (eTopoi, Journal for Ancient Studies, special issue 2). Berlin: Edition Topoi.
Rothman, M. (ed.) 2001. Uruk Mesopotamia and its Neighbours. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press.
Rothman, M. 2003. Ripples in the stream: Transcaucasia-Anatolia interaction in the Murat/Euphrates basin at the beginning of the third millennium BC, in: Smith, Rubinson 2003: 95-110.
Rothman, M. 2020. Approaces to the nature of the Kura-Araxes societies in their homeland, in: Balossi Restelli et al. 2020: 163-172.
Rubinson, K.S., Sagona, A. (eds) 2008. Ceramics in Transitions. Chalcolithic through Iron Age in the Highlands of the Southern Caucasus and Anatolia (ANES Supplement 27). Leuven – Paris – Dudley, MA: Peeters.
Sağlamtimur, H., Massimino, M.G.M. 2018. Wealth sacrifice and legitimacy: The case of the Early Bronze Age Başur Höyük cemetery (south-eastern Turkey), in: Müller 2018: 329-342.
Sagona, A. 1984. The Caucasian Region in the Early Bronze Age (BAR International Series 214). Oxford: B.A.R.
Sagona, A. 1998. Social identity and religious ritual in the Kura-Araks cultural complex: Some observations from Sos Höyük. MA 11: 13-25.
Sagona, A. 2018. The Archaeology of the Caucasus: From Earliest Settlements to the Iron Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sagona, A., Sagona, C. 2000. Excavations at Sos Höyük, 1998 to 2000: Fifth Preliminary Report. ANES 37: 56-127.
Sarı, D. 2007. Küllüoba’da Ele Geçirilen Siyah Ağız Kenarlı (Black-Topped) Kaselerden Birkaç Örnek, in: Alparslan et al. 2007: 647-655.
Shanshashvili, N. 2005. On the function of sign-symbols of Kura-Araxes culture. Dziebani 15-16: 84-94.
Simonyan, H., Rothman, M. 2015. Regarding ritual behaviour at Shengavit. ANES 52: 1-45.
Siracusano, G., Bartosiewicz, L. 2012. Meat consumption and sheep/goat exploitation in centralised and non-centralised economies at Arslantepe, Anatolia. Origini 34: 111-124.
Siracusano, G., Palumbi, G. 2014. Who who’d be happy, let him be so: nothing’s sure about tomorrow. Discarded bones in an Early Bronze I élite area at Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey): Remains of banquets? in: Bieliński et al. 2014: 349-358.
Skourtanioti, E., Erdal, Y., Frangipane, M., Balossi Restelli, F., Yener, A., Pinnock, F., Matthiae, P., Özbal, R., Schoop, U.D., Guliyev, F., Akhundov, T., Lyonnet, B., Hammer, E., Nugent, S., Burri, M., Neumann, G., Penske, S., Ingman, T., Akar, M., Shafiq, R., Palumbi, G., Eisenmann, S., D’Andrea, M., Rohrlach, A., Warinner, C., Jeong, C., Stockhammer, P., Haak, W., Krause, J. 2020. Genomic History of Neolithic to Bronze Age Anatolia, Northern Levant, and Southern Caucasus. Cell 181: 1158–1175.
Smith, A. 2005. Prometheus unbound: Southern Caucasia in prehistory. JWP 19: 229-279.
Smith, A. 2015. The Political Machine: Assembling Sovereignty in the Bronze Age Caucasus. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Smith, A., Rubinson, K. (eds) 2003. Archaeology in the Borderlands. Investigations in Caucasia and Beyond. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology.
Stockhammer, P.W., Maran, J. (eds) 2017. Appropriating Innovations. Entangled Knowledge in Eurasia, 5000–1500 BCE. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Squadrone, F.F. 2007. Regional culture and metal objects in the area of Carchemish during the Early Bronze Age, in: Peltenburg 2007: 198-213.
Vignola, C., Masi, A., Balossi Restelli, F., Frangipane, M., Marzaioli, F., Passariello, I., Stellato, L., Terrasi, F., Sadori, L. 2017. δ13C and δ15N from14C-AMS dated cereal grains reveal agricultural practices during 4300–2000 BC at Arslantepe (Turkey). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 247: 164-174.
Vignola, C., Marzaioli, F., Balossi Restelli, F., Di Nocera, G.M., Frangipane, M., Masi, A., Passariello, I., Sadori, L., Terrasi, F. 2019. Changes in the Near Eastern chronology between the 5th and the 3rd millennium BC: New AMS 14C dates from Arslantepe (Turkey). Nuclear Inst. and Methods in Physics Research B 456: 276-282.
Wicke, D. (ed.) 2019. Der Palast im antiken und islamischen Orient (Colloquien der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 9). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Wilkinson, T. 2014. The Early Transcaucasian phenomenon in structural-systemic perspective: Cuisine, craft and economy. Paléorient 40/2: 203-229.
Yoffee, N. (ed.) 2015. Early Cities in Comparative Perspective. 4000 BCE-1200 CE (The Cambridge World History). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zimmerman, T., Dilek, N., Kagan Önder, T. 2011. Ein neues Schwert vom Typus ‚Arslantepe’– frühmetallzeitliche Waffentechnologie zwischen Repräsentation und Ritual. PZ 86/1: 1-7.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
