Sutton Hoo, St. Sergius and the Sasanians: Anglo-Saxon finds re-interpreted from an eastern perspective
Keywords:
Sutton-Hoo, Sasanian, Anglo-Saxon, Byzantine, Mediterranean, Trade, BurialAbstract
In 1939, excavations at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk revealed the spectacular remains of a rich Anglo-Saxon burial placed in a cabin in the centre of a 27 metre-long ship and sealed by a tumulus (Bruce-Mitford et al. 1975; 1978; Evans (ed.) 1983) (Figures 1–2). The identity of the chieftain buried here has attracted different views, although most favour Raedwald, a king of East Anglia ruling from a major settlement at Rendlesham between c. 599–624/25. His is the richest of a growing number of Anglo-Saxon princely burials (Blackmore, Blair, Hirst and Scull (eds) 2019: 298–303, 313–14; Gittos in press), although Sutton Hoo mound 1 is unique in being the only intact ship-burial (Figure 3)...
References
Primary sources
Anon., Syrian Anatomy, Pathology and Therapeutics, or ‘The Book of Medicines’ (edited by E.A.W. Budge). London: Humphrey Milford / Oxford University Press, 1913 (two volumes).
Dioscorides, De Materia Medica. Being an Herbal with Many Other Medicinal Materials (translated by T.A. Osbaldeston). Johannesburg: Ibidis Press, 2000.
Gregory of Tours, Glory of the Martyrs (translated by R. Van Dam). Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1988.
ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 (translated by H.A.R. Gibb). London: Lund Humphries, 1929.
ibn Jubayr, The Travels (translated by R. Broadhurst). London: Goodword Books, 2001.
Maurice, Strategikon. Handbook on Byzantine Military Strategy (translated by G.T. Dennis). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
Priscian, Answers to King Khosroes of Persia (translated by P. Huby, S. Ebbesen, D. Langslow, D. Russell, C. Steel and M. Wilson). London: Bloomsbury, 2018.
Tacitus, The Histories (translated by C.H. Moore and J. Jackson). Cambridge [MA]: Harvard University Press / London: William Heinemann, 1979.
Theophylact Simocatta, History (translated by M. and M. Whitby). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997 (reprint).
Secondary sources
Adams, N. 2010. Rethinking the Sutton Hoo Shoulder clasps and armour, in C. Entwistle and N. Adams (eds) ‘Intelligible Beauty’: Recent Research on Byzantine Jewellery: 83–110. London: The British Museum.
Amin Agha, A. 1987. Excavations at Kharabuk, in M. Sa’id Damerji (ed.) Researches on the Antiquities of Saddam Dam Basin Salvage and Other Researches: 79–100 (Arabic section). Baghdad: State Organization of Antiquities & Heritage.
Atagarryev, A.E. 2022. Excavations at Kirpichli depe in Dehistan, in St J. Simpson (ed.) Sasanian Archaeology. Settlements, Environment and Material Culture: 109–126. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
Backhouse, L.T.D. 2021-2022. Ceramic grave goods in 5th- to 7th-century Kent: A social interpretation. Medieval Ceramics 42-43: 1–22.
Ball, W. and S. Gill 2003. Seh Qubba, in W. Ball (ed.) Ancient Settlement in the Zammar Region. Excavations by the British Archaeological Expedition to Iraq in the Saddam Dam Salvage Project, 1985–86. Volume One (BAR International Series 1096): 64–96. Oxford: Archaeopress on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq.
Ball, W., St J. Simpson and D.J. Tucker 2003. Other recorded sites, in W. Ball (ed.) Ancient Settlement in the Zammar Region. Excavations by the British Archaeological Expedition to Iraq in the Saddam Dam Salvage Project, 1985–86. Volume One (BAR International Series 1096): 170–179. Oxford: Archaeopress on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq.
Bateman, J.C. 1972. Bitumen and Similar Materials. Unpublished dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, London.
Blackmore, L., I. Blair, S. Hirst and C. Scull (eds) 2019. The Prittlewell Princely Burial. Excavations at Priory Crescent, Southend-on-Sea, Essex, 2003 (MOLA Monograph 73). London: Museum of London Archaeology.
Boëda, E., S. Bonilauri, J. Connan, D. Jarvie, N. Mercier, M. Tobey, H. Valladas, H. al Sakhel and S. Muheisen 2008. Middle Palaeolithic bitumen use at Umm El Tlel around 70,000 BP. Antiquity 82 (318): 853–861.
Bruce-Mitford, R. et al. 1975. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 1, Excavations, Background, the Ship, Dating and Inventory. London: British Museum Publications.
Bruce-Mitford, R. et al. 1978. The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 2, Arms, Armour, Regalia. London: British Museum Publications.
Burger, P., R.J. Stacey, S.A. Bowden, M. Hacke and J. Parnell 2016. Identification, geochemical characterisation and significance of bitumen among the grave goods of the 7th century Mound 1 ship-burial at Sutton Hoo (Suffolk, UK). PLoS ONE 11(12): e0166276. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166276 [last accessed 6th January 2024]
Burgess, Rev. B. 1884. Opening of a tumulus at Taplow. Records of Buckinghamshire 5/6: 331–335.
Comfort, A. 2023. The Roman Frontier with Persia in North-Eastern Mesopotamia. Fortresses and Roads around Singara. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
Crowfoot, E. 1983. The textiles, in A.C. Evans (ed.) The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 3/2, Late Roman and Byzantine Silver, Hanging-Bowls, Drinking Vessels, Cauldrons and Other Containers, Textiles, the Lyre, Pottery Bottle and Other Items: 409–462. London: British Museum Publications.
Dark, K. 2000. Britain and the End of the Roman Empire. Stroud [Gloucestershire]: Tempus.
Dietrich, A. 1993. q.v. mūmiya. The Encyclopaedia of Islam (C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, eds), vol. VII (MIF-NAZ): 556. Leiden / New York: Brill.
Dresvyanskaya, G.Ya. 1989. Nekropol’ Starogo Merva [Necropolis of Old Merv]. Trudy YuTAKE 19: 122–163.
Duchesne-Guillemin, M. 1993. Les instruments de musique dans l’art Sassanide (Supplément 6). Gent: Iranica Antiqua.
Ershov, S.A. 1959. Nekotorye itogi arkheologicheskogo izucheniya nekropolya s ossuarnymi zakhoronenyami v raione goroda Bairam-Ali (raskopki 1954–1956 gg.) [Some results of the archaeological research of the necropolis with ossuaries in the region of the town of Bairam-Ali (excavations 1954–1956)]. Trudy Instituta Istorii, Arkheologii i Etnografii. Materialy po arkheologii Turkmenistana 5: 160–204. Ashkhabad.
al-Feel, M.R. 1965. The Historical Geography of Iraq between the Mongolian and Ottoman Conquests 1258–1534. Nejef: Adab Press (two volumes).
Farmer, H.G. 1938. The instruments of music on the Taq-i Bustan bas-reliefs. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (July): 397–412.
Faussett, Rev. B. 1856. Inventorium Sepulchrale: An Account of Some Antiquities Dug up at Gilton, Kingston, Sibertswold, Barfriston, Beakesbourne, Chartham, and Crundale, in the County of Kent, from A.D. 1757 to A.D. 1773 (edited by C. Roach Smith). London.
Fenwick, V. and P. Tanner 2023. Sutton Hoo: re-imaging the ship and chamber. The Antiquaries Journal 103: 36–62.
Fiey, J.-M. 1958. Identification of Qasr Serej. Sumer 14: 125–127, figs 1–5.
Forbes, R.J. 1936. Bitumen and Petroleum in Antiquity. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
Fowden, E.K. 1994. The Barbarian Plain. Saint Sergius between Rome and Iran. Berkeley / Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Gittos, H. in press. Sutton Hoo and Syria: The Anglo-Saxons who served in the Byzantine army? The English Historical Review.
Goldberg, M. and M. Davis 2021. The Galloway Hoard. Viking-age Treasure. Edinburgh: National Museums Scotland.
Green, C. 2017. Sasanian finds in early medieval Britain and beyond: Another global distribution from Late Antiquity? https://www.caitlingreen.org/2017/07/sasanian-finds-in-early-medieval-britain.html [last accessed 6th January 2024]
Griffith, A.F.L.F. and L. Salzmann 1914. An Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Alfriston, Sussex. Sussex Archaeological Collections 56: 16–53.
Hamerow, H. 2021. Kingston Down grave 142. University of Oxford. Online resource. https://doi.org/10.25446/oxford.16977766.v1 [last accessed 6th January 2024]
Hemer, K.A., H. Wilmott, J.E. Evans and M. Buckley 2023. Ivory from early Anglo-Saxon burials in Lincolnshire – A biomolecular study. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 49: 103943.
Hills, C. 2001. From Isidore to isotopes. Ivory rings in Early Medieval graves, in H. Hamerow and A. MacGregor (eds) Image and Power in the Archaeology of Early Medieval Britain: Essays in Honour of Rosemary Cramp: 131–46. Oxford: Oxbow.
Hobbs, R. 1995. Roman coins from Merv, Turkmenistan. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 14/1 (March): 97–102.
Horne, E. 1933. Cowry shells in Anglo-Saxon graves. The Antiquaries Journal 13/2 (April): 167.
Ives, E. 1773. A Voyage from England to India, in the Year MDCCLIV. London: Edward and Charles Dilly.
James, S. 2004. The Excavations at Dura-Europos conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters 1928 to 1937. Final Report VII. The Arms and Armour and other Military Equipment. London: British Museum Press.
Karamian, G., K. Farrokh, M.F. Kiapi and H.N. Lojandi 2018. Graves, crypts and Parthian weapons excavated from the gravesites of Vestemin. Historia i Świat 7: 35–70.
Al-Khairy, A.H. and I. Ahmed 1987-1988. Preliminary report of the Bismayah excavation. Sumer 45: 1–8 (English), 9–32 (Arabic).
Kocsis, L. and E. Molnár 2021. A 6th–7th century solitary burial of a warrior with his horse at Tiszagyenda. Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 72/1: 137–192.
Kästner, J.-M. 1987. Circular tomb SH 100, in B. Vogt and U. Franke-Vogt (eds) Shimal 1985-1986. Excavations of the German Archaeological Mission in Ras Al-Khaimah, U.A.E. A Preliminary Report: 45–48, figs 29–30. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
Kolltveit, G. 2022. The Sutton Hoo lyre and the music of the Silk Road: A new find of the fourth century AD reveals the Germanic lyre’s missing eastern connection. Antiquity 96/385: 208–212.
Kühnel, E. 1933. Die Ausgrabungen der Zweiten Ktesiphon-Expedition (Winter 1931/32). Berlin: Staatliche Museen in Berlin.
Ladd, S. and T.F. Martin in press. The Roman and Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Hatherdene Close, Cherry Hinton, Cambridge (East Anglian Archaeology Reports). Cambridge: Oxford Archaeology East.
Lawergren, B. 2001. Music history, i. Pre-Islamic Iran, in S. Sadie (ed.) The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians vol. 12 (Huuchir to Jennefelt): 521–530. London: Macmillan.
Levina, L.M. and A.B. Nikitin 1991. Ob odnoj gruppe iranskikh reznykh kamnej iz Vostochnovo Priaralja [On a group of Iranian carved stones from eastern Aral region]. Vestnik drevnei istorii 1991-1994: 53–65.
Lewis, B. (ed.) 1974. Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople. Volume II: Religion and Society. New York: Harper and Row.
Loud, G. and C.B. Altman 1938. Khorsabad, Part II. The Citadel and the Town (Oriental Institute Publication 40). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lowick, N.M. 1985. Siraf XV. The Coins and Monumental Inscriptions. London: British Institute of Persian Studies.
Mallah, H.-A. 1990. Čagana, in E. Yarshater (ed.) Encyclopedia Iranica IV: 613. London / New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Mango, M. 2019. The east Mediterranean flagon, in L. Blackmore, I. Blair, S. Hirst and C. Scull (eds) The Prittlewell Princely Burial. Excavations at Priory Crescent, Southend-on-Sea, Essex, 2003 (MOLA Monograph 73): 178–184. London: Museum of London Archaeology.
Mason, K. (ed.) 1945. Persia (Geographical Handbook Series, B.R. 525). London: Naval Intelligence Division.
Mikolajczyk, A. and N.M. Lowick 1976. The Persian king’s earring? Coin Hoards II (N.M. Lowick, ed.): 86–88.
Miles, G. 1973. The coins, in R.N. Frye (ed.) Sasanian Remains from Qasr-i Abu Nasr. Seals, Sealings, and Coins: 26–36. Cambridge [MA]: Harvard University Press.
Morgan, P.H. 2003. Some remarks on a preliminary survey in Eastern Fars. Iran 41: 323–338.
Muhammad, A.S. and S. Abdulghani 2016. Medical Chemistry of Iraqi Sulfurous Springs. An Overview on Balneology and Mud Therapy. London: Lambert Academic Publishing.
Nejim Abbu, A. 1987. The excavations of the Mosul University at Imsefna, in M. Sa’id Demirji (ed.) Researches on the Antiquities of Saddam Dam Basin Salvage and Other Researches: 133–155 (Arabic section). Baghdad: State Organization of Antiquities and Heritage.
Niebuhr, C. 1776-1780. Voyage en Arabie et en d’autres pays circonvoisins. Paris / Utrecht: Amst and Co. (two volumes).
Oates, D. 1962. Qasr Serīj – A sixth century basilica in Northern Iraq. Iraq 24/2 (autumn): 78–89.
Oddy, W.A., M. Bimson and M.R. Cowell 1983. Scientific examination of the pottery bottle, in A.C. Evans (ed.) The Sutton Hoo Ship-burial. Volume 3/2, Late Roman and Byzantine Silver, Hanging-Bowls, Drinking Vessels, Cauldrons and Other Containers, Textiles, the Lyre, Pottery Bottle and Other Items: 608–610. London: British Museum Publications.
Pankova, S.V. and St J. Simpson (eds) 2020. Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
Petersen, A.D. 2023. The bitumen trade of Hīt from antiquity to Ottoman times, in I.L. Finkel, J.A. Fraser and St J. Simpson (eds) ‘To Aleppo gone ...’: Essays in Honour of Jonathan., N. Tubb: 142–146. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
Piemontese, A.M. 1989. ‘Bārbad’, in E. Yarshater (ed.) Encyclopedia Iranica (volume III: Ataš-Bayhaqi): 757–758. London / New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Pitarakis, B. 2005. Une production caractéristique de cruches en alliage cuivreux (VIe–VIIIe siècles): typologie, techniques et diffusion. Antiquité Tardive 13: 11–27.
Read, C.H. 1894. A Saxon grave at Broomfield, Essex. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London 15: 250–255.
Rich, C.J. 1836. Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, and on the Site of Ancient Nineveh: With Journal of a Voyage down the Tigris to Bagdad and an Account of a Visit to Shirauz and Persepolis. London: James Duncan.
Richards, P.M. 1980. Byzantine Bronze Vessels in England and Europe: The Origins of Ango-Saxon Trade. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
Sauer, E. W. 2005. Coins, Cult and Cultural Identity: Augustan Coins, Hot Springs and the Early Roman Baths at Bourbonne-les-Bains (Leicester Archaeology Monographs 10). Leicester: University of Leicester.
Scull, C. and T. Williamson 2018. New light on Rendlesham: Lordship and landscape in East Anglia, 400–800. The Historian (autumn): 6–11.
Scull, C., F. Minter and J. Plouviez 2016. Social and economic complexity in early medieval England: A central place complex of the East Anglian kingdom at Rendlesham, Suffolk. Antiquity 90/354: 1594–1612.
Silver, M., K. Silver, M. Törmä, M. Nuñez, J. Okkonen and T. Okkonen 2020. Remote sensing Roman and Byzantine Eastern fronter zone in landscape: Case studies from Syria and Turkey, in D.G. Hadjimitsis, K. Themistocleous, B. Cuca, A. Agapiou, V. Lysandrou, R. Lasaponara, N. Masini and G. Schreier (eds) Remote Sensing for Archaeology and Cultural Landscapes. Best Practices and Perspectives Across Europe and the Middle East: 153–176. Cham [Switzerland]: Springer.
Simpson, St J. 1994. A note on Qasr Serij. Iraq 56: 149–151.
Simpson, St J. 1996. From Tekrit to the Jaghjagh: Sasanian sites, settlement patterns and material culture in northern Mesopotamia, in K. Bartl and S.R. Hauser (eds) Continuity and Change in Northern Mesopotamia from the Hellenistic to the Early Islamic Period: 87–126, pls. 1–2. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.
Simpson, St J. 2007. Ancient Settlement in the Zammar Region. Excavations by the British Archaeological Expedition to Iraq in the Eski Mosul Dam Salvage Project, 1985-86, Volume 2. Excavations at Tell Abu Dhahir (BAR International Series 1724). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Simpson, St J. 2013. Rams, stags and crosses from Sasanian Iraq: Elements of a shared visual vocabulary from Late Antiquity, in A. Peruzzetto, F. Dorna Metzger and L. Dirven (eds) Animals, Gods and Men from East to West. Papers on Archaeology and History in Honour of Roberta Venco Ricciardi (BAR International Series 2516): 103–118. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Simpson, St J. 2018. Death in Mesopotamia: Archaeological evidence for funerary ritual and burial practice during the Sasanian period, in S. Gondet and E. Haerinck (eds) L’Orient est son Jardin. Hommage à Rémy Boucharlat: 425–448. Louvain: Peeters.
Simpson, St J. 2019. The land behind Rishahr: Sasanian funerary practices on the Bushehr Peninsula, in Y. Moradi (ed.) AfarinNameh: Essays on the Archaeology of Iran in Honor of Mehdi Rahbar: 111–124. Tehran: The Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism.
Simpson, St J. 2021. The first Bronze Age bull-headed lyre from south-east Arabia? Tantalising shell inlays from the third millennium BC (Umm an-Nar) site of al-Tikha, Sultanate of Oman. ash-Sharq 5/2 (November): 133–141.
Simpson, St J. 2022a. Tulul Kobeba: First results of survey and excavation at a looted early medieval ‘marsh Arab’ township in Dhi-Qar province, southern Iraq. ash-Sharq 6/1 (June): 4–57.
Simpson, St J. 2022b. Of boxes in the Bronze Age: Exotic imports, skeuomorphs and local crafts from Central Asia to Sumer. Al-Rafidan 43: 53–64.
Simpson, St J. 2023. From Jemdet Nasr origins to an early Muslim town in the wetlands: Second preliminary report on excavations at Kobeba (Dhi Qar governorate), southern Iraq. ash-Sharq 7/1 (June): 121–40.
Simpson, St J. forthcoming. From Tell Abu Dhahir to Kobeba: Archaeological uses of bitumen in Iraq from late prehistory to the early medieval period. Al-Rafidan.
Simpson, St J. and A. Meek 2018. Small, bright and colourful: Observations on the circulation of minor glass objects from Sasanian contexts, in P. di Vingo (ed.) Le Archeologie di Marilli. Miscellanea di studi in ricordo di Maria Maddalena Negro Ponzi Mancini: 105–120. Alessandria: Edizioni dell’Orso.
Simpson, St J., R. Hobbs and S.D. Loginov 1993. Ot Rima do Charzhu i Kitaya: vizantiyskaya moneta naydena na vostoke [From Rome to Charjou and China: Byzantine coin finds in the east], in Ancient Amul: Problems in the History and Culture of the Middle Amu Dar’ya. Proceedings of the Conference held 1–3 October, 1993: 49–50. Charjou.
Simpson, St J. (ed.) 2022. Sasanian Archaeology. Settlements, Environment and Material Culture. Oxford: Archaeopress Archaeology.
Sodini, J.P. 2011. La terre des semelles: images pieuses ramenées par les pèlerins des Lieux saints. Journal des Savants 2011/1: 87–88.
Solecki, R.L. 1981. An Early Village Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar (Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 13). Malibu: Undena.
Spier, J. 2011. Late Antique and Early Christian gems: Some unpublished examples, in C. Entwistle and N. Adams (eds) ‘Gems of Heaven’: Recent Research on Engraved Gemstones in Late Antiquity, c. AD 200–600 (British Museum Research Publication 177): 193–207. London: The British Museum.
Stacey, R., J. Dunne, S. Brunning, T. Devièse, R. Mortimer, S. Ladd, K. Parfitt, R. Evershed, I. Bull and L. McIntyre 2020. Birch bark tar in early Medieval England – Continuity of tradition or technological revival? Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 29 (February): 102118.
Stève, M.-J. (ed.) 2003. L’île de Kharg: une page de l’histoire du Golfe Persique et du Monachisme Oriental (Civilisations du Proche-Orient, Série I, Archéologie et environnement, 1). Neuchâtel: Recherches et Publications.
Stevens, Rev. J. 1884. On the remains found in an Anglo-Saxon tumulus at Taplow, Bucks. Journal of the British Archaeological Association 40/1: 61–71.
Trever, C. and V.G. Lukonin 1987. Sasanidskoe serebro. Sobranie Gosudarstvennogo Ermitazha [Sasanian Silver. Collection of the State Hermitage]. Moscow: ‘Iskusstvo’.
Volken, M., Q. Mould and E. Cameron 2021. A reassessment of leatherwork from the Sutton Hoo ship burial. The Antiquaries Journal 101: 160–180.
Waggoner, N. 1981. Appendix I, in R.L. Solecki, An Early Village Site at Zawi Chemi Shanidar (Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 13): 71. Malibu: Undena.
Walton Rogers, P. 2007. Cloth and Clothing in Early Anglo-Saxon England (CBA Research Report 145). York: Council for British Archaeology.
Walton Rogers, P. 2014. Costume in the Early Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Saltwood, Kent: Part 1, Women’s Costume Accessories. https://www.aslab.co.uk/pangur-press/ [last accessed 6th January 2024]
Webster, L. 2001. The rise, fall and resuscitation of the Taplow burial. http://www.suttonhoo.org/Saxon/Saxon_pdf/w_Saxon35.pdf [last accessed 6th January 2022]
Webster, L. 2011. The Prittlewell (Essex) burial: A comparison with other princely graves, in T.A.S.M. Panhuysen and B. Ludowici (eds) Transformations in North-Western Europe (AD 300-1000). Proceedings of the 60th Sachsensymposion, 19.-23. September2009, Maastricht (Neue Studien zur Sachsenforschung 3): 266–272. Stuttgart.
Wilkinson, T.J. 1990. The development of settlement in the North Jazira between the 7th and 1st Millennia B.C. Iraq 52: 49–62.
Wilkinson, T.J. 1993. Linear hollows in the Jazira, Upper Mesopotamia. Antiquity 67: 256: 548–562.
Wilkinson, T.J. and D.J. Tucker 1995. Settlement Development in the North Jazira, Iraq. A Study of the Archaeological Landscape (Iraq Archaeological Reports 3). Warminster [UK]: Aris and Phillips on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq.
Youngs, S.M. 1983. The pottery bottle, in A.C. Evans (ed.) The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial. Volume 3/2, Late Roman and Byzantine Silver, Hanging-Bowls, Drinking Vessels, Cauldrons and Other Containers, Textiles, the Lyre, Pottery Bottle and Other Items: 597–607. London: British Museum Publications.