3D measurements of historical Islamic tombstones in Bahrain (2023–2025)

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a 3D (three-dimensional) measurement survey of historical Islamic tombstones in Bahrain, conducted between 2023 and 2025. While Bahrain is renowned for its Dilmun and Tylos burial mounds, from the eleventh century onwards the Islamic period saw the emergence of distinctive limestone grave markers adorned with Arabic inscriptions and mihrab-style decorations. Despite their archaeological significance, these monuments have undergone severe environmental degradation. To ensure their preservation by record, photogrammetry was employed to create accurate 3D models of 126 tombstones across multiple sites, including the al‑Khamis Mosque and the Abu Anbara Cemetery. Comprehensive 3D documentation facilitated the objective chronological analysis of tombstone typology. The results revealed clear changes, including a transition from double to single slabs, significant size fluctuations in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and the progressive elaboration of mihrab motifs peaking in the seventeenth century. This typological framework provides a crucial tool for estimating the dates of undated tombstones, thereby enhancing our understanding of Islamic funerary practices in the region.